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EXPERIMENTS 



IN 



I Elementary Agriculture 



A Laboratory Manual for the Public Schools 



BY 



WILLIAM HAROLD DAVIS 

A. B. Cornell University^ 

Pd. B. New York State Normal College 

Professor of Agriculture at the Iowa State Teachers College 



Published by S. E. Green & Co., Cedar Falls, Iowa 
Copyrighted 1915 by W. H. Davis 



EXPERIMENTS 



L\ 



Elementary Agriculture 



A Laboratory Manual for the Public Schools 



BY 



WILLIAM HAROLD DAVIS 

A. B. Cornell University 

Pd. B. New York State Normal College 

Professor of Agriculture at the Iowa State Teachers College 



Published by S. E. Green & Co., Cedar Falls, Iowa 
Copyrighted 1915 by W. M. Davis 






'^■ 



PREFACE 



This book is not intended to impart information as a text, but 
lead others to discover facts for themselves which is the funda- 
niental purpose of a laboratory manual. 

In compiling these experiments in Elementary Agriculture, 
the purpose has been to develop a practical and pedagogical method 
and at the same time present suitable material for the work in the 
common schools. The teacher is directed to give instruction in live 
things and not depend upon the subject matter of text books. By 
this method, both teacher and pupils will feel a genuine interest 
in nature and a growth in both intelligence and observation will 
result. Pupils are always interested in experimentation because it 
appeals to the practical side of judgment and is full of interest and 
novelty. They enjoy reality because they can understand and they 
decline to appreciate theory with abstract statements because it is 
not adapted to their comprehension. Knowledge first hand, such 
as is obtained from nature, is always to be preferred to second hand 
knowledge, such as is furnished by text books, and the teacher 
should always seek the way that makes the strongest impression 
when giving effective instruction. 

This Manual has abundant references to the latest and best 
sources of information. Good results arp always obtainable by so 
dividing the work of the students that there will be four laboratory 
periods a week and three recitation periods, which should consist 
of assigned class work, reports on experiments or special reading 
of bulletins by the student talks by the teacher on subjects and 
phases of the work that are assigned or applied ; also, field work, 
when observation and investigation need to accompany this in- 
struction. Study the subject by topics, "the special publication 
of bulletins mentioned are obtainable from the Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. and from the Iowa State College 
of Ag., Ames, Iowa, on application, as they are mostly dis- 
tributed free to teachers. 

It was not the intention of the author, when he arranged these 
typical experiments to put them in printed form but so many of 
his students have solicited copies for their own use and that of as- 
sociate teachers that he yields to their request and publishes this 
preliminary edition with the intention of preparing a more com- 
plete edition in the near future. 

William Hakold Davis. 
Cedar Falls, Iowa, 1915. 

©CI,A406544 
JUL ••! 1915 %.^, I 



<<^ 



GENEEAL DIRECTIONS. 

The student must study the question or object of each experi- 
ment to understand thoroly tlie purpose for wliich he is working. 
Follow the directions given under operation and find your answe^r, 
which is the conclusion. Note the three steps : question or object' 
work or operation, answer or conclusion. Copy the question as 
stated^in your directions when you record your work; use the title 
''Obj.''; likewise "Oper.'' in which you tell just what you did and 
what you saw in logical sequence, using the first person sino-ular 
or plural, ''I did this'' and ''I saw", or "we did" and "we saw'', etc. 
Record all measurements in tabulated form; answer all questions; 
label all drawings; do not copy the operation as given in the direc- 
tions but describe your work and results. The Conclusion should 
answer the question or Obj. in a clear and concise statement. 

A student should not perform every experiment but those best 
adapted to the course. 



EXPERIMENT 1. 

Obj. Are the leaves of plants all alike or are there variations? 

Refer. Cornell Read. Cour. for Farmers, No. 41, Nov. 1908 ; Cor- 
nell Ag. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1910, p. 421; 1909, pp. 543-558. 
Far. Bill. 297-313. 

Oper. 

1. Dig up a healthy ragweed; you may use a bean, dandelion, 
corn, timothy leaves or heads. 

2. Try to find two leaves alike. 

3. Draw outlines of as many different shaped leaves as possible. 

4. Describe as many differences as you can find. Be brief. Size, 
shape, color, veining, hairiness, shape of margins; length, 
size and colot of petiole. 

5. Does it make any difference from what plants seeds are taken ? 
Explain. Illustrate this by using timothy, clover and corn 
as an example. 

EXPERIMENT 2. 
Ohj. What are the parts of a flower and the use of each ? 
Oper. Use any perfect flower — tulip, petunia, lily, morning- 
glory, etc. If in season use the apple blossom. 

2. The green leaf-like structures at the base of the flower are 
the sepals. The petals comprise the colored portion. Draw 
and label. 

3. In the center is the pistil and around it, next to the petals, 
are the stamens. 

4. The knobbed cup or sticky surface at the top of the pistil is 
the stigma. Can you find any yellow dust-like material there- 
on ? What is it ? 

5. At the base of the pistil is a bulb-like structure, the ovary. 
The style connects the ovary and stigma. Draw and label a 
pistil. 

6. The stamen has a sack-like portion on top, the anther. Open 
one that is ripe. What is on the inside? Use? The thread- 
like part leading up to the anther is the filament. Draw and 
label. 

7. With a safety razor blade, cut thin cross sections of an ovary 
and place under a hand magnifier. Note the wall, the num- 
ber of chambers or locules, the seed-like structure or ovules, 
and the material to which attached, placenta. Draw and label. 

8. Read in some Botany text pollination and fertilization. Give 
a separate written description of these two processes with dif- 
ferences. Do not copy the words of the text. Use a drawing. 

9. Describe the part each of the following takes in pollination : 
humming bird, horses, cows, man, wind, ant, etc. Why should 
a farmer keep honey bees? What agricultural plants need 
help in pollination? What precautions are sometimes taken 
to prevent corn from §elf -pollination ? 



EXPEEIMEXT 3. 

Ohj. Has a corn plant floral part? If so, uliat are they? De- 
scribe each. 

Oper. Refer. : Corn Plants, Their Uses and Ways of Life, Sar- 
gent, pnb. by Houghton, Miff. & Co., N. Y. Also Corn, by 
Bowman & Crossle}^ pub. by authors, Ames. 

1. Draw a stalk before ripening, label tassel, ear, leaves, stalk, 
silk, husk, node, internode, ear, leaf sheath and brace root. 

2. Draw a section of the tassel showing the stamens with anthers 
and filaments. There are two bulbs, lodicules, which pry the 
bracts apart so that the stamens can come out. 

4. Draw a young ear showing pistil, ovary, style, stigma with 

stigmatic hairs, and kernels with silk attached, involucre or 
husk. 

EXPERIMENT 4. i. 

Ohj. What is a plant cell? What are its parts? 
Oper. 

1. Place a leaf of Elodea under the microscojoe. You may also 
use the epidermis stripped from one of the following leaves: 
beet, canna, tradescantia, lily, or leaf of any water plant. 

2. Make out the wall ; protoplasm — small granules or minute 
particles looking like dirt; chloroplastid — a green body which 
manufactures the food; food particles — a part of the proto- 
plasm, starch, etc. The vacuole occupies the central portion 
and is mostly filled with water. The nucleus may not be visi- 

. ble but a spherical mass of protoplasm suspended near the 
center of the cytoplasm. 

3. Draw a cell at least one inch in diameter, showing the parts 
observed. 

4. You may use a prepared slide or stained specimen for observ- 
ing protoplasm, nucleus, nucleolus, protoplasmic membrane, 
vacuole starch and other food particles. 

EXPERIMENT 5. 

01) j. How may I distinguish the fourteen noxious weeds of Iowa? 

Also other prevalent ones? 
Oper. Refer. : Gray's New Manual of Botany ; Iowa Geol. Survev — 

Bui. 4 by Pammel, p. 796. 
Bulletins: Weed Laws of la. Circ. 5, Ames; Iowa Yr. Bk., V. 13, 

p. 542; Eradication, la., 105; Mich. 260; Farm. Bui., 124; 

215; 28; 10; 94; 194; 10; 188; 186. 

1. Read one of the previous bulletins assigned; write a review, 
do not copy the bulletin. Report to class without notes. 

2. Collect specimens of the weeds studied in the field ; label, take 
to the laboratory, press; mount with passe-partout and name 
in your note book. Hand in for credit. 



3. List of the fourteen unlawful weeds of Iowa. 

1. Quack grass — Agropyron repens. 

2. Canada thistle — Cirsum arvense. 

3. Cocklebur — Xanthiuni canadense. 
-I. Wild mustard — Brassica aryensis. 

5. Curled dock — Rumex crispus. 

6. Smooth dock — Eumex altissinuis. 

7. Buckhorn — Plantago lanceolata. 

8. Wild parsnips — Pastinaea sativa. 

1). Horse nettle — Solanum carol inense. 

10. Velvet weed — Abutilon 'rhe()])hrasti. 

11. Burdock — Arctium Minus. 

12. Shoo-fly — Hibiscus trionum. 

13. Wikl carrot — Daucus carota. 

14. Russian thistle — Sal sol a kalivar tciiiii folia. 
Outline for the study of woods. 

1. Ident. of 15 common — 

2. Methods of s])roading. 

3. Hoots and classification 
Annual 

Perennial 
Biennial 

4. Weed control and crad. — 5 methods. 

5. Weed laws of the 14 unlawful weeds of Iowa. 

6. Damages and benefits. 

7. Definition. 

8. Weed seeds. 

KXPHRIMHXT (i. 

Ohj. How do the number of seeds on a wood compare with those 

on a cultivated plant ? 

Seeds of Michigan Woods. 2()(). 
Oper. 

1. Collect a whole weed with seeds as lamb's quarters, fox tail, 
dandelion, smartweed, ragweed or prickly amaranth. 

2. Count the seeds on an average sized stalk or head and multi- 
ply this by the number of such stalks or heads on the plant. 
This will give the approximate numhoi- of seeds. You may 
count the seeds. 

3. Count the kernels in one row of coiii-on-tho-cob, the]i esti- 
mate the number of kernels on the plant. 

4. Compare the weed seeds with the kernels. 

5. Estimate the number of plants that might spring from one 
weed in five years. The same from corn. Compare. 



EXPERIMENT 7. 
(By E. L. Palmer.) 

Obj. To distinguish between the seeds of some of the common 
clovers and grasses. 

Mater. Magnifying glass. Seeds of Alsike Clover, White CMover, 
Red Clover and -Alfalfa; also Timothy, Orchard and Ken- 
tucky Blue Grass. 

Oper. Part 1. The Clovers. 

Describe the seeds according to the following chart: 
Length, width, smoothness, position of the notch on end or 
side, angular or regularly rounded, color, lustre; sketch the 
outline 1 in. in diam. 





Alfalfa 


Red Clover 


White Clover 


Alsike Clover 


Length 










Width 


• 












Smoothness 














Position of Notch on end 
or side 










Angular or regularly 
rounded 










Color 










Lustre 














Outline sketch 1 inch in 
diameter 















Part II. — Tlie grasses. 

Describe the seeds according to the following chart. 

Length, width, color of (a) seed; (b) scale, with or without 

a fine tipped scale, number of scales. Sketch 2 in. in length. 
Note — Length and width of seeds are expressed so as to show the 

greatest and least measurements, as 2-4 m. m. 





TvEXTUCKY 
BLUE GEASS 


ORCHARD 


TIMOTHY 


Length 












Width 












Color of — 

(a) Seed 












(b) Scale 








With or without spine- 
tipped scale 


• 






Number of Scales .... 
Sketch (2 inches in 
leno"th) 













ISuinmary : 

What differences do you notice between grass and ilower seeds ? 
Which would be more liable to harbor spores of fungous dis- 
eases and why? 
Which would be more easily adulterated? 
Mix five seeds of each of the above kinds and then separate 
them correctly. 
Re]ere72ce: 

F. B. Testing farm seeds in home and in the Eural Schools,. 

by F. H. Hillman. 
Lustre — expressed in terms such as shining, dull, granular^ 
oily, with a sheen, etc 



8 



EXPEEIMENT 8. 
(By E. L. Palmer.) 

Ohj. To be able to identify the seeds of some of the more pernici- 
ous weeds found in commercial seeds. 

Mater. Seedss Quack grass, Agropyron repens; Canada Thistle, 
Cirsium arvense; Wild Mustard, Brassica arvensis; Curled 
Dock, Eumex crispus ; Buckhorn, Plantago lanceolata. 

Note— The other noxious weeds of Iowa, while they are bad, 
are not as a rule distributed by being found in commercial 
seeds or closely resemble some of the seeds included in the 
above list. The seeds of the above plants should be collected 
in the Fall. Classify according to the following chart : 
Length, width, color, lustre, surface, shape in cross section, 
number of scales present, sketch the outline 1 in. in length. 





Dock O Grass 


W. Mustard 


Biichorn 


C. Thistle' 


Leno'th . . 
















Width 












Color 
















Lustre 

Surface 












Shape in cross-section 
sketch 
















Number of scales 
present 












Make an outline 
sketch 1 inch in 
length 













bwnmary: 

Which of these more closely resemble clover seeds in shape and 

size? Which grass seeds? Mix some of these seeds with 

the seeds they most closely resemble and then separate 

them correctly. 
The teacher should prepare seeds and adulterants and have 

the pupils determine the adulterants preseiit. 
Reference : 

F. B. 428, Seed Testing in Rural School. 

F. B. 382, Adulteration of Forage Plant Seeds. 

Mich. 260, Seeds of Michigan Weeds, E. Lansing, Mich. 



EXPERIMENT 9. 
(By E. L. Palmer.) 

Obj. To determine the percentage purity of certain commercial 
seeds. 

Mater. Samples of seeds prepared by the teacher where the purity 
is known. Samples secured from home or elsewhere, where 
purity is unknown. Samples taken from seeds at home should 
be selected from various parts of the bag — top, bottom, sides 
and centre. They should be mixed and sub-divided so that the 
final sample will be fairly representative of the quality of the 
whole sack. 

Method: 

1. Weigh the sample very carefully on a postal scale or some 
even more delicate balance. 

2. Separate all foreign matter — sand, broken and foreign seeds. 

3. Weigh this foreign matter and compute the percentage purity 
of the whole sample. 

4. After determining the percentage which will germinate, de- 
termine the actual price of good seed in the sample. 

EXPERIMEXT 10. 

Obj. What per cent of the alfalfa, clover and timothy seed give» 
me will germinate? How long does it take each to sprout? 

Oper. Reference, Ear. Bui. 408 and 194. 

1. Soak filter paper, colorless blotting paper, papers, tissue paper 
or cloth in warm water. 

2. Remove, spread out flat in a porcelain basin or plate. 

3. Count out a certain number of seeds, as twenty of each (the 
more the better is your test). Label on the paper. Cover with 
damp paper then loosely with dry paper so they will not dry. 
Set in warm place until they sprout. 

4. Make a table showing dates, which sprouted first, the num- 
ber and the temperature. 

5. The seeds may be sown on soaked cotton floating in a tumoler 
of water. They will germinate quicker if, before sowing, they 
are soaked over night in running water. 

6. Seeds may be sown on damp linen spread over dampened 
sawdust or sand. Then it is best to cover with linen on top 
on which is more damp saw dust, etc. 

7. If you wanted 15 alfalfa plants per sq. ft., how many seeds 
would you sow per A.? How many pounds? (Weigh by your 
own method and find out.) 

10 



EXPEEIMENT 11. 

Ohj. How may I distinguish alfalfa plants from clover? 
Oper. Kef.: Ele. of Kg., Warren, p. 408-410; 188, 284, 287, 405, 
410; Far. Bnl. 339, 312; Alfalfa, Coburn. 

1. Use any kind of clover; red, alsike, or white, etc. Obtain the 
whole plant. 

2. Obtain the whole alfalfa plant, with roots and blossoms, etc. 

3. Compare the whole root systems, as to size, shape, length, etc. 

4. Compare the stem or stems springing from one root. Try to 
find liow new stems are formed when the old ones are cut. Al- 
falfa should be cut when these new stems begin to form 
around the old ones, and the machine should not cut the 
newer sprouts. 

5. Compare the leaves — (the leaf is composed of three leaflets, 
a divided leaf — as to size, shape, colors, spots, divisions, hairi- 
ness, etc. 

6. Compare the flowers; put them under a hand lens and note 
their resemblance to a sweet pea. 

7. Compare their food values and nutritive ratios as in Ele. Ag., 
Warren, Table 8. 

8. Make a drawing of root, stem and leaf of each. 

EXPEEIMENT 12. 

01}. Upon what part of a plant do Xodules appear ? Size ? Shape ? 

Structure? Number? Use? 
Oper. Col. Bot., Atkinson, p. 92; Bact. in Relation to Country 

Life, Lipman. 

1. Use plants in the previous experiments or dig up a fresh plant 
from the following legumes: Clover, Alfalfa, Peas, Beans. 

2. Carefully remove the soil and note the small, roundish knot- 
like formations on the roots. 

3. Find as many sizes as you can; measure, record. 

4. Find as many shapes as you can; draw (x4), label, nodules, 
root, etc. 
5. Cut a big nodule open, describe the material. Kote — If it 
is hollow, it is a gall produced by an insect, nematode. 
Note. — If the microscope magnifies 800 times or more, you can 
scrape some of the interior, mount and see the Pseuclomonas 
radicocola. It is better distinguished by aid of stains, etc. It 
is generally thot that these bacteria take their food from the 
plant and m turn supply the plant with nitrogen from the air 
or from the decay of their dead bodies. 

11 



EXPERIMEXT 13. 

■Ohj. Soil Inoculation. 

Oper. Write a composition using this outline: 

Intro. : 

1. When discovered, by wlioni and where. 
Discuss : 

2. What soil inoculation is and how accomplished. 

3. Part of the plant affected and how affected. 

4. Describe the nodules, size, shape, position and number. 

5. What produces nodules and how they enter the plant. 

6. Benefits to the plant, soil and man. 

7. List of plants grown in Iowa that may be inoculated. 

8. How to obtain the inoculating materials. 

a. Market address. 

b. Home prej^aration. 

c. Soil method. 
Con. : 

9. Its importance commercially and agricul tin-ally. 
10. Your personal opinion of its benefits. 
Beferences : 

Bureau of PI. Ind., 71, 1905. 
Far. Bui. 214, 124, 240. 

Bacteria in Eelation to Country Life, Lipman Jr., 221. 
Yr. Bk. U. S. Dept. Ag., 1899^ p. 248 ('^\linit" Etc. Hist,) 
The Soil King, p. 126 (Hellriegel's Work). 
Soils, Burkett, p. 145. 

Yr. Bk. of U. S. Dept. Ag., 1910, 1902, 322, 1906, 1895, 1897. 
' Ohio, 244, 630 (Sweet Cloyer Forerunner of Alfalfa etc.). 
Read directions from a package of inoculating material, in 
laboratory, sent out by each company. 

Companies manufacturing inoculating materials. 

1. U. S. Dept. PI. Industry, Wasliington, D. C. 

2. "Farmogen", Earp, Thomas Co., Bloomfield, X. J. 

3. "Xitrogen,'^ the German-American ''Xitragin'' Co., Milwau- 
kee, Wis,, but now marketed by Galloway & Co., Waterloo, la. 

4. Ferguson Nitrogen Bacteria, Homeward Xitragen Co., 55 
Liberty St., X^. Y. 

5. "Legumogerm", Western Legumogerm Co., Topeka, Kan. 

EXPERIMEXT 14. 

Ohj. What is fruit? Seed? What are the parts of a bean? De- 
scribe each. 

Oper. Use dry beans in pod; green "string beans'' or canned 
"string beans". Peas will answer for pod study only. 

Pod: 
1. To what are the pods fastened? By what? This is the pe- 
duncle; find little leaf-like structures where the peduncle 

12 



joins the pod. How many? What are these? What pa:rt of" 
the flower was the pod, originally? If a flower is at hand,, 
examine. Note the "string" on the pod. What part of the 
flower was this? What part was fastened to the "string" but 
is missing now? The matured ovary with its contents and 
adjoining parts is fruit. Classify the following as fruits or- 
vegetables: peanut, potatoes, peppers, podding pea, orange, 
lettuce, radish, kernel of corn, tomatoes, turnip, burdock 
burr, oats. 
Seed: 

1. To what are beans fastened? By what? This tube-like struc- 
ture is the funiculus and carries food to the bean. Can you 
tell where the funiculus joined the bean? How? Describe 
this scar or hilum. 

2. Near one end of the hilum is a small opening thru which air 
and moisture enter. This is the micropyle. 

3. Near the hilum, on the end, opposite the micropyle is a white 
bead-like structure, the raphe or "flower scar". 

4. Note that the bean is covered by tissue, the testa; remove 
some, hold it between your eyes and light. Describe the quality 
of the testa that you notice. 

5. Draw to show all parts named. , Note — Make all drawings . 
at least one inch in diameter. 

6. Draw three views, to show the different shapes of a bean. 

7. Describe each one of the external parts. 

Internal: Use soaked beans unless fresh ones are at hand. The 
anterior or front of the bean is the portion lying near the 
pod at the hilum. 

1. Cut the testa between the halves, at the dorsum or back, open 
carefully and notice the little plantlet between these cotyle- 
dons and how it is attached to each cotyledon. Note the two 
leaflets or plumule; the stem or hypocotyl. These three 
parts compose the embryo. Make a drawing of the embryo. 
The root cannot be distinguished easily. 

2. Describe the embryo, testa, hilum and micropyle, giving a use 
for each. 

o. In water, mount thin sections from a part of the cotyledon 
and place under the microscope. Note the cell walls and 
starch grains. Draw and label. 
Note — Germinate seeds and compare witli the pea. 

EXPERIMENT 15. 

Ohj. What are the parts of a kernel of corn? 

Opcr. Beference : Corn Plants, Their Uses and Ways of Life, 

Sargent; Corn, Bowman and Crossley, p. 345-360; Far. Bui. 

208, p. 8-10; 112, p. 14-15; 50, p. li-lG; 203, p. IG. 

13 



External : Use a broken cob with yellow corn. 

1. How many rows? Is there ever an odd number? How are 

the rows arranged with reference to each other? I^ote the 

pairs. Draw to show this. Also the relation of the kernel. 

2 Note the embryo or germ. Does it face the butt or the tip 

of the ear? Why? 

3. Above the embryo^ the silk scar. 

4. The covering or exocarp; remove some. 

5. The areas of a kernel are, crown, center and tip. The crown 
being from the embryo up; the tip is the part that fits into 
the cob. 

6. Some chaff may be found over the tip. 

7. Note the pith, wood portion, cell, etc., of cob. 

8. Make a drawing showing above facts. 
Internal : 

9. Use six soaked kernels of 'yellow corn. Place a kernel point 
toward you, embryo up, make a vertical cut from tip to crown 
thru tlie center of the emlu-yo. 

10. Note the little root or radicle, in a root slieath within tlio tip 
of the kernel; the young stem or pluuiule; the gummy coty- 
ledon. These three comprise the embryo. Take the embryo 
out of another kernel. Draw and label. 

11. Note the yellow, oily endosperm and tlie wliite, starcliy endo- 
sperm of the crown. 

12. Eemove some of the covering to the kernel, the exocar]). 

3 3. Draw to show the j)oints in 11 and 12: for further study, see 
reference, especially Far. Bui. 298, p. 9, for the composition 
of each part. Copy the "Table 1" in your Experimeut nfter 
the Con. 

EXPERIMENT 16. 

Ohj. What is a good method for testing tlie presence of protein, 
albumin or nitrogenous materials in seeds? 

Oper. Eeference: Exp. With Plants, Osterbout, p. 165. 

1. Lay three soaked kernels of corn on their fiat face, germs up, 
crown from you; cut one thru the center, lengthwise, with a 
horizontal cut. 

2. Cut another thru the center, lengthwise, with a liorizoutal cut. 
3. Cut the third crosswise, with a vertical cut thru the center. 

4. Spread apart the cotyledons of a soaked bean, cut one into 
two halves, crosswise. 

Caution — This acid is poisonous, exceedingly injurious 
to clothing, flesh, iron and tinware. In case of accident, use 
water freely, then wash in lime water, soda water or in soap. 
Place refuse in crocks or glassware, bury in the grouiul ; ifever 
throw into sinks. 

5. Cover the specimens with nitric acid, let stand for five min- 
utes, pour off the acid, save, rinse specimens with water, 
dampen with ammonia. 

14 



6. An orange color shows protein. 

7. Sketch each seed showing where the protein is located. 
Note. — Millon^s reagent, or Mercurous Nitrate may be used. See 

Micro-technique, Zimmerman, p. 129. 

EXPEEIMENT 17. 

Ohj. What is a good method for detecting the presence of 

starch in any seed? 
Oper. Cut several corn kernels thru different parts, place these 

in a dish or on a paper. Paint over with iodine (the tincture 

may be purchased at a drug store.) What change takes 

place ? 

2. In what part is the most starch located? 

3. What parts contain little starch? 

Note.— You may boil some endosperm in a test tube one-third 
filled with water, cool, then insert the iodine or, boil the 
bisected seeds, and add iodine; test a slice of potato and 
cotyledon of a bean. Dig a small hole in the material and 
pour a little iodine therein. 

EXPEPJMENT 18. 

Ohj. How is the starch stored in corn and beans ? Like what 

do starch grains appear. Describe. 
References Far. Bui. 249, p. 11; 295, p. 14; 298, p. 8. 
Oper. W^ith a safety razor cut a very thin slice of the material, 

using soaked seeds, the endosperm of corn and the cotyledon 

of a bean. 

2. Mount this material in water, place under the high power of 
a microscope. Draw. Label cell wall, starch grain, etc. 

3. Run iodine under the cover glass. Describe, giving reason for 
the change. 

4. Compare the starch grains of each. How may they be told 
apart ? 

EXPERIMENT 19. 

Ohj. How may I extract oil from seeds? 

Oper. Use seeds from flax, cotton, corn, or use one of the fol- 
lowing meals : oil, cotton seed, corn. 
1. Grind or crush the seeds. 
2. Mix thoroly with ether or benzine and let stand for 10 or 
15 minutes. 
3. Either pour this mixture on white paper, let dry, and note 
the surface; or, 
4. Filter, allow the ether of the filtrate to evaporate and 
describe the residue. 

5. Test this : Which contains the more oil, the embryos from 
twenty corn kernels or the endosperms? 

15 



EXPEEIMENT 20. 

Obj. What are the parts of a potato? Give a use for each. 
Oper. Eeference: Far. Bui. 295, p. 9. The Potato, Grubb & 

Guilford, Doubleday, Page & Co. 

It is better to use a whole plant, if possible. 

1. The potato is covered .with a "skin,^^ "jacket'^ or epidermis. 
Eemove some. Describe its color, thickness, etc. It is an 
underground stem or tuber. To what part of a tree's stem 
does its epidermis correspond? Use? 

2. Find a small piece of stem which connected it with the 
other plant part. 

3. Opposite this, find the terminal or end bud. 

4. Examine a well developed bud ; note the color of tip, base, etc. 

5. Note* the "eye" which consists of the bud and a crescent, 
shield-shaped projection or leaf. Draw an eye xi ; label. 

6. Do the "eyes" or buds have a mathematical arrangement? 
Make out a spiral arrangement. (Phyllotaxy, two-fifths.) 

7. Draw a tuber, life size, bringing out the above facts. 

8. Draw to show three shapes of a tuber with major axis, minor 
axis, thickness. 

9. To see the buds develop, ])lace a potato in the neck of a 
bottle filled with water and let stand under proper conditions 
for growth. 

Internal : 

8. Cut a thin cross section of a raw potato and hold it between 
your eye and the light. Note the outer skin as above. 

9. Notice a layer next to the epidermis from a twelfth to a 
fifth of an inch in thickness, with a row of little dots (tubes 
or fibro-vascular-bundles) on the inner portion. This is the 
cortical portion which turns green when exposed to the light, 
having chloroplastids and corresponding to the green layer. 

10. Xote that the remaining, inner portion has two layers, a 
pithy center layer which, star-like, sends irregular rays into 
the more solid portion. This pith is sometimes called the 
"core" or inner medullary area; the latter, the outer med- 
ullar}' area, which contains the greater bulk and food in- 
gredients. 

11. Draw to show these four layers. liabel. Place an exceedingly 
small, thin piece under the microscope. Draw cell wall, 
starch grains, etc. 

12. Copy a whole plant from a chart, book or Inilletin. (If a 
whole plant was not given you.) Tabel fully. 

lo. After vour conclusion, copv the diagram in the Far. BuL 
295, li. 11. 

16 



14. Cut an onion lengthwise. Note the small roots springing 
from a triangular, hard, solid portion at the base which is the 
stem. Note the leaf bases coming from this stem compris- 
ing the greater edible portion. Buds may form between the 
leaf bases and stem. This whole bud-like structure is a 
bulb. Draw and label. Compare with the potato. 

EXPERIMENT 21. 

Ohj. To know the potato from the seed to the table. 
Oper. For reference see the previous experiment. The Potato, 
Clrubb & Guilford, is the best all-around reference. 

2. Potato Growing in Iowa. Ext. Bui. 8, Ames, gives a score 
card. 

3. Cornell Yr. Bk. 1909, p. 575; 532; 1085. 

4. See Origin of Cult. Plants, De Candolle, p. 45, Appleton & 
Co.; also F. B. 295. 

5. Plant and Flower Parts, Cvclo. of Ag., Bailey; Plant Phy- 
siol., Sachs, p. 58, 330; Root System, F. B. 35; 233. 
Farmers' Bulletins and Year Books from U. S. Dept. Ag. 

6. Seed Potato and Culture Improvements. F. B. 35; 533; 
245; 92; 135; 225; 65. Yr. Bk. 1905, p. 415; 1904, p. 46 
and 314. 

7. Storage, Planting, Care, etc. F. B. 125; 65; 407; 35. Yr. 
Bk. 1910, p. 24; 1900, p. 339. 

8. Fertilizers, Crop Rotation, etc. F. B.'87; 44; 210; 222; 9. 
Yr. Bk: 1896, p. 114; 1894, p. 123; 1902, p. 523. 

9. Disease and Treatments (scab, rot, blight). F. B. 91 ; 56; 15. 
Wyoming 71. Yr. Bk. 1905, p. 482 (Formalin for scab). 

10. Food, Composition, Cooking, Color, Flavor, etc. F. B. 249; 
170; 73; 344; 84; 65; (Starch, Bur. Chem. Bui. 58.) Yr. 
Bk. 1900, p. 337 and 344; 1899, p. 743; 1904, 429. 

11. Yields. U. S. Yr. Bk. 1912, p. 15 and 608. Iowa 
Yr. Bk. 1910, p. 215 and 100. Potato Growing in Iowa, Ext. 
Bui. No. 8, Ames. Compare Iowa's corn crop with the 
potato crop as to bushels value. Compare the average yield 
per acre in your county with that of other foreign coun- 
per acre in your county with that of foreign countries, also 
with states and other counties. Suggest improvements. 

12. Report upon these topics as directed by the instructor. 

13. Additional reference on the back of Ext. Bui. 8, Ames. 

14. Machinery used in cultivation. 

15. Uses made of the potato. 

16. How to establish a new variety, etc. 

17 



EXPEEIMENT 22. 

Obj. Which of these exhibits contains the best potatoes. 

Oper. Potato Growing in Iowa, Ext. Bnl. 8, Ames, p. 46. A score 
card from the above reference may be used although it differs 
because no universal scale has been adopted. 



PUPIL'S SCORES 



10 



I. Dealers' Scale. 
(External Exam). 
Size (20) Perfect 

Too large 2 

Too small 12 

Not even 6 

Shape (10) 10 

. Appearance (60) 

Not bright 10 

Dirty 10 

Scabby or wormy .... 40 
Quality (10) 

Unsound 5 

Brittle or spongy 5 

II. Final Purchase Scale. 
(Knife examination.) 

Smoothness 5 

Paring thin 10 

Flesh white 5 

Not hollow 5 

Cortical layer thick . . .10 
Small centers and not 

watery 15 

III. Consumers' Scale. 
(Table qualities.) 

Quick cooking 5 

All cook alike 10 

Mealiness 20 

AVhiteness 5 

Grain when mashed .... 5 
Flavor or taste 5 

Score 200 



Size: Major axis (length) 3%-4 in. 
Minor axis (width) 3-31^*^ in. 
Thickness 2-2l^ in. 
Weight 7-8 oz. 



18 



4. 



Cornell Yr. Bk. 1909, p. 579. 

Judges may disqualify the potatoes on the following: 
Deep eyes, knots, or irregular shape. 

The color being streaked, mottled, splashed, mixed or over 
2% of a different color. 

Dirty, muddy, barked or skinned, scabby, wormy or rotten 
or hollow. Generally over 1% rotten, 15% scabby and 25% 
hollow. 

Cartons as sacks, etc., not neat, same size, and not securely 
fastened. 

White potatoes should score higher than red ones — under 
variety. 

To test number III. Place the same number from samples 
of each exhibit of potatoes under equal conditions in boiling 
water; boil until done, remove all, take one out of each ket- 
tle, let cool; cut to judge mealiness and color which should 
be white; not creamy, green or black. It should be separated 
crisply when cut with a knife, and be even thruout. The 
core should be as mealy as the outer medulla; white, crystal- 
line like, showing fine, white starch grains. Mash under the 
same conditions; season to suit the taste. Note the grain 
and flavor. 

EXPERIMENT 23. 

Ohj. Which exhibit has the. best oats? 

Score card used by the North Dakota Ag. Col., No. 9 Oats. 



Perfect 


Number of Exhibit. 


Scale of Points. Score. 


1 


2 


8 


4 


5 


1. Uniformity — even in size, similar 

in shape 10 

2. Color — bright, uniform corres- 

ponding, to variety type, free 
from weather stains 15 

3. Size and plumpness: Long, thick, 

plump, corresponding to variety 
in size and shape 15 

4. Weight: Standard, 30 lb. per bu. 10 

5. Feeding quality, per cent of husk 

on kernel, of empty husks, of 
"pin oats" 20 

6. Dockage, per cent and nature; 

weight and kinds of dirt, weed 
seeds and other grain 15 

7. Per cent and kinds of damaged 

kernels (musty, moldy, bin- 
burned) 15 

Total 100 








■ 



19 



EXPERIMENT 24. 

Ohj. What per cent of a potato is water? Carbo-hydrates (starch 
and sugar) ? Mineral matter? 

Oper. 1. AVash, with a scru"bbing brush, a good sized tuber, dry, 
wxigh accurately, record. 

2. Eemove the epidermis (pare) and place both in a dish for 
several da}'^, let stand in the sunshine. Why? Of what 
use is the epidermis? 

Note. — Results may be obtained in one day if the whole potato 
is sliced thin and cut into small strips, then dried in a 
warm, breezy place or by heat. 

3. When thoroughly dry, weigh. Compare with the first weight 
and account for what has happened. 

4. Remove most of the starch and sugar by burning in a cruci- 
ble or by placing in dish on hot coals; cool, weigh. How 
much starch and sugar, etc., w'as there? What per cent? 

How much mineral matter or ash left ? 

5. Verify your results by consulting reference : Grubb, p. 9, 
523 to 528, and Far. Bui. 65, p. 10. 

EXPERIMENT 25. 



Obj. What are the parts of a stem? How are tliey associated 
with graftage? 

Oper. Take a cross section of an apple stem, peach, pear, plum 
or any exogenous stem. 

1. Note the bark, wood, pith. 

2. Note annular rings or year's growtli. The ring, and the 
wood to the next ring is one year's growth. How c'^i is the 
stem? 

3. Strip a little bark from the wood. The row of cells which 
join these tw^o is the cambium layer or growing portion. It 
cannot be seen with the unaided eye. The sap passes down 
the stem thru the bark and water courses upward thru the 
wood. In order that the cion may carry on this circulation 
and receive sap, the cambium, the bark, and the wood of both 
cion and stem must be together. Other reasons will be dis- 
cussed in class. Make a drawing to show these parts of the 
stem. 

4. Describe the effect of girdling young trees as done by rabbits. 

20 



EXPEEIMENT 26. 

O'hj. How is grafting wax made? 
Oper. Far. Bui. 113, p. 13. 

A. Rosin, 4 parts by weight (8 oz.) 

B. Beeswax, 2 parts by weight (4 oz.). 

C. Tallow, 1 part by weight (2 oz.). 

If tallow cannot be purchased, get beef -fat, fry out, cool and 
use, or In winter In summer 

A. Rosin 4 5 

B. Beeswax 11/2 2 

C. Linseed oil 1 li/^ 

Melt B and C, then add A. When melted drop into cold 

water, slightly grease hands with tallow or in summer, keep them 
wet in cold water; pull until light like molasses candy, roll in 
balls. Soak a ball of No. 18 yarn in the hot wax for tongue 
grafting. Also, long strips of muslin (5 ft.) of convenient width 
(10 inches) for wrapping, in budding. When you remove this, 
place one stick under the center of the muslin, two sticks opposite 
each other on the outside and run them along, wringer-like, to 
remove the wax; hang up and dry. 

If the wax is too hard, remelt it and add more tallow and 
beeswax; if too soft, more rosin. This wax may be applied with a 
brush while melted but not scalding. 

EXPERIMENT 27. 

Ohj. What "are the different methods of grafting? When and 

how should each be applied? 
Oper. Reference: Cyclo. Horticulture, Bailey. Farmers' Bui. 79, 

114, 238, 113, 133, 659, 30, 118, 124, 153, 218 and 152. The 

Nursery Book, p. 73, and the Pruning Book, p. 263, by 

Bailey, MacMillan & Co. 

1. One hundred nineteen modes of graftage have been described 
but they fall into three divisions: (a) Budding; (b) Cion; 
(c) Inarching. Graftage should be done in the early spring, 
before the buds start to open, but some authorities say at 
any time. 

2. Budding. Find a healthy bud on a branch, well up and out 
on the tree, cut crosswise of the stem about one-fourth inch 

above the bud, slanting towards the pith then horizontally 
under the bud, and one-half inch below the bud, cut out to 
surface. Expose the cambium below the bud, along the sides. 
Make a horizontal, slanting cut on the stem of the stock, 
in the center and below which make a longitudinal gash into 
the wood, about one-half inch long. Turn back the corners 
of the "T'^ shaped cut, expose the cambium, insert the bud 
and then turn to their original position. Put wax over all 

21 



the bud except the scales ; wrap with raffia which remove in 
two weeks. 

3. Cion graftage. The cion should be cut from the last growth 
on the tree. Cut a whip about halfway up and on the outer 
branches of the desired fruit stock. Use healthy material. 
Trim off the end buds which do not use. It should contain 
three or four buds. On the tree to be grafted, cut off a healthy 
limb about one inch in diameter, split down leaving the knife 
therein. Now sharpen the cion wedge-shape, leaving one 
side of the wedge wider than the other. Quickly insert the 

cion in the stock, being careful to have the cambium layers 
meet. Two cions may be placed in one stock. Wind the 
wax with raffia or waxed cloth, which remove in two weeks. 
Wax the top of the cion. 

4. Inarching. This is used when trees are girdled by accident 
or by rabbits. Cut small twigs from the tree, sharpen like a 

cion, slip under the bark above and below the girdle, leaving 
buds between. It depends on the size of the tree, the num- 
ber of cions we should insert. Insert two at least, cover 
with wax all but the bud scales, wrap the bark so as to liold 
and aid the cions. 

5. Whip Graftage: One may dig up wild apple trees in the 
fall, cut off near the root, leaving a chisel-shaped cut, fit on 
a cion from a valued tree, bind properly as above, pack in 
damp sand, and store in a cool place over winter. In the 
spring this tree may be reset. 

6. Make a graft of each kind as described above. '(Field exer- 
cise. Have the instructor inspect it before placing the wax. 

7. Sketch your graftage, telling briefly wliat you did. 

8. The grafting stock and cion should have like pit or seed. 

9. Can you graft peaches and pears? Apples and pears? Cher- 
ries and peaches? Peaches and plums? 

EXPERIMENT 28. 

Obj. What is corn smut? 

Ope?\ 1. Draw some smut which is covered by the plant's epi- 
dermis. Label epidermis, smut, stalk or flower or ear. 

2. Describe the internal structure of the smut mass, how it 
affects the plant. 

3. Draw a minute portion of the smut under the miscroscope, 
magnified 400 times. Label spores, spines, food content. 

Note. — These spores may winter-over, sprout, and infect young 
corn plants when about one inch high. The young tissue or 
the growing portion is the only source of infection. Destroy 
all spores masses. The younger the better. There are spori- 
dia and chlamydospores formed. Spores may live over in 
manure which should not be put on corn plots in this con- 
dition. 

22 



EXPERIMENT 29. 

Obj. Describe oat smut and its preventative. 

References : F. B. 225; Plant Diseases, Duggar, p. 374. 

Oper. V. Taking a drill of standing oats, count the good stalks 

and the smutted stalks, make an estimate of the per cent 

smutted. 

2. If Iowa's oat crop amounts to $45,685,916, figure the loss 
on this average. Wisconsin's is about 7 million dollars; 
Illinois, 10 million. If Iowa's loss averages 8 per cent, figure 
the total. The total U. S. loss is placed at 20 million dollars. 

3. Draw a smutted stalk. Does the fungus effect the "husks" 
(palets and lemmae) ? Kernel? Straw, Leaves? 

4. Mount some of the mass under the microscope. Draw and 
describe. Compare with corn smut. 

5. Preventative: Spores remain in the "husks" which cover the 
seed, and if the seed is sprinkled with 1 lb. formalin mixed 
with 50 gallons of water "until moist enough to pack in the 
hand," put in a pile and covered for two hours or more until 
ready to sow, the spores will be killed. These spores germi- 
nate, grow up thru the oat stalk, "stunt" it and produce 
new spores for offspring. 

Note. — There is a hot water treatment. Immerse seeds in water 
at 130 degrees F. for 10 minutes, etc. ; also put 1 pt. formalin 
to 30 gal. of water; lower in a gunny sack for 10 minutes 
dry and store. 

EXPERIMENT 30. 

Ohj. What is a potato scab and how is it prevented? 

Reference: Plant Diseases, Duggar, p. 292. 

Oper. 1. Obtain some scabby potatoes, note the size, color and 
nature of the scabby spots. Draw to show those of different 
sizes and stages — some broken open, some closed. 

2. It is difficult for an amateur to take out spores and mount 
under the microscope. They are so small, etc. 

3. The spores may live in the soil several years and severaJ 
scabby potatoes spread the disease to a bin of^ good ones. 

4. Control: (a) Plant clean tuber; (b) rotate crops; (e) Im- 
merse the "seed" for two hours in a solution of 1 oz. formalin 
to 2 gal. water. 

EXPERIMENT 31. 

Ohj. What are some methods of plant propagation? Describe five 
methods in detail that you employed. 

Oper. Runner: Strawberry. Note from what part of the straw- 
berry this springs; its roots. How many plants from the 
same runner ? Cut off the runner from a plant and re-set the 
plantlet. 

23 



2. Stolon: Black raspberries. Bend the tips of the cane in the 
fall, insert in a hole punched in prepared soil, cover, packing 
the soil Avell around it. Leave the soil loose on top. Find 
some that are developed. Describe. 

3. Cutting: Grape, Willow, Currant, Wandering Jew. Cut off 
some old cane, bury a node (where a leaf has been) in deep 
sand. This shows well if the lower ends are placed in a glass 
jar of water for several weeks. Describe your results. 

4. Buds: Potatoes, Tiger Lily. Note the black buds in the leaf 
axils of the lily, especially in the latter part of July. Plant 
them on the surface of damp soil. Cut out some buds of 
tubers and put them in a damp soil in a covered glass dish. 

5. Slips: Coleus, Geranium. Where part of the plant has 
branched or forked, cut off one of these branches, insert, the 
lower end in 3 inches of sand or soil kept well dampened. 

6. Leaf: Begonia. Place the petiole of a begonia leaf in damp 
sand in a covered jar. 

7. Rhizone: Fern or Quack Grass, Stooling (Wheat, etc.) Take 
an underground stem commonly thot of as the '^root'' of a 
fern or quack grass. Cut this into portions, leaving the knots 
or nodes on each piece. Place in damp soil. Visit a wheat 
or oat field and note the stooling. 

8. Root : Sweet Potatoes, Rhubarb. Place a sweet potato in moist 
soil. Watch the development from time to time. 

9. Bulb: Onions, Tulip, Water Lily, etc. Place the lower part 
(stem) of an onion thru a hole in a cardboard which is placed 
on a dish filled Avith water. Be sure and keep part of the 
onion in water. 

10. Suckers: Plum, Redberry, Tomato. Remove one of the suck- 
ers and place the lower end in two inches of damp soil. 

11. Spore: Corn Smut, Bread Mold. Place some damp bread in. 
a jar. Sow on some spores of bread mold, keep covered. You 
may put spores of corn smut on young parts of young corn 
plant. 

12. Seeds: Beans, etc. Plant beans and watch the parts develop 
and sketch from time to time. 

13. Fruit: Corn. Plant corn "seed," watch the embryo develop, 
sketch from time to time. What becomes of the exocarp and 
endosperm ? 

14. Take six of the above given by the instructor and place them 
in proper condition. Record dates and tell briefly all changes. 
Draw where possible. 

Note. — Most of these will be shoAvn best if placed in a glass covered 
jar. 

24 



EXPERIMENT 32. 

Obj. How does a judge score corn by aid of a score card? 

Oper. Reference : Manual of Corn Judging, A. D. Shamel, p. 28, 
etc. Orange Judd & Co., N. Y., about 50 cents; also Corn 
Judging, by Sholsman. Corn, Bowman & Crossley. Corn 
Secrets, P. G. Holden, p. 42. Corn Culture, P. C. Hoolden, 
p. 59-74. Successful Corn Culture, P. G. Holden, p. 5-14. 
Corn Judging, Wooster, 212. Some Lessons from the Corn 
Shows, Ky., 145. Hints for holding Corn Shows, Ind. Circ. 1. 
Score Card for Dent Corn, Ohio Circ. 61. Send to your State 
Corn Growers' Association for score cards, etc. Make a score 
card and score tlie ten ears given you. 





Reid's Yellow 
Dent. 


Boone Co. White 


Silver Mine 


A. Ear- 








Shape 


Slowly tapering 


Cylindrical 


Cylindrical 


Length 


10 inches 


10 inches 


9 inches 


Circ'mf'r'nce 


7 inches 


7.5 inches 


7 inches 


B. Kernel — 








Condition . . . 


Firm, upright 


Firm, upright 


Firm, upright 


Color 


Light yellow 


Pearl white 


Cream white 


Indentation . . 


Medium smooth 


Rough 


Very rough 


Shape 


Long wedge 


Medium wedge 


Broad wedge 


€. Rows- 








Number 


18-24 


16-22 


16-20 


Space 


Narrow 


Medium 


Narrow 


Arrangements 


Pairs 


Pairs 


Pairs 


D. Butt- 
Filing out . . . 


Deeply rounded 


Moderately 
rounded 


Moderately 


E. Tip — 


Compressed 


Compressed 


rounded 


Filing out . . . 


Reg. rows of 
kernels 


Reg. rows of 
kernels 


Reg. rows of 
kernels 


F. Shank- 








Size 


Small 


Medium 


Small 


G. Cob 








Size 


Medium 


Small 


Small 


H. Color- 


Deed red 


White 


White 


Percent Corn 


88 


86 


83 



25 



The Iowa Score Card. 



Points. 


EARS 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


1. Trueness to type 10 

2. Shape of ear" 10 

3. Purity of color : 

a. Grain 5 

b. Cob 5 

4. Market condition 10 

5. Tips 5 

6. Butts 5 

7. Uniformity of kernels. . .10 

8. Shape of kernels 5 

9. Length of ear 10 

10. Circumference of ear. . . 5 

a. Furrows between rows 5 

b. Space between kernels 
at cob 5 






















11. Proportionof corn to cob 10 




Total 100 





KFA' TO THE SCORE CARD 
RULES 

No. 1. Trueness to type: The ten ears should possess like 
characteristics, true to the variety named. 

No. 2. Should conform to the type or variety, tapering 
slightly from butt to tip, but mostly cylindrical. 

No. 3. Color of grain, true to variety and not mixed; white 
cob should have white corn; and red cob yellow corn. Otherwise 
cut at least 2 points. For one or two mixed kernels cut 14 point; 
for four or more, I/2 point. Missing kernels are scored as mixed. 

No. 4. Ears sound, matured, firm, dry, free from mold, rot 
and insect injuries. 

No. 5. Not too tapering and well filled with regular, uniform 
kernels. When the full diameter of thr cob is exposed, take off 1 
point; if the cob is exposed, cut less in proportion. Consider the 
shape, size and row — regularity of the kernels on the tip. 

No. 6. Rows should extend over the butt in regular order, 
leaving a deep indentation where the shank is broken. Small, open, 
swollen or compressed butts are objectionable. 

No. 7. Uniform in size, shape, color and true to variety. 
Their edges should touch from tip to crown. The tip is richest in 
oil, hence of high feeding value. A full and plump tip is desira- 



26 



ble for fattening. The "horny" portion and endosperm contain 
most of the protein (84% and"' starch (90%). 

Nos. 9 and 10. Length. Circumference. 

Northern Iowa . . . .8i/>-9i/2 61/2-7 

Central Iowa 81/2-93/4 634-7l^ 

Southern Iowa ... 9-10 7-71/0 

Long ears are objectionable because they usually have poor 
butts ancl tips, hence a low percentage of corn. 

x\dd togetlier the deficiencies or excess in length of all the ears 
not coming up to standard, and cut one point for every inch. In 
circumference, cut a point for every 2 inches added. Measure the 
circumference one-third the distance from the butt tow^ard the tip. 

Space between kernels near the cob is objectionable; furrows 
between the rows should be small. 

No. 11. To determine, shell every ear, weigh the cobs, sub- 
tract from the weight of ears, thus finding the weight of corn. 
The weight, depth, size of kernels, size of cob and maturity are 
features of weight. The student may use these facts for his 
estimate. 

EXPEEIMENT 33. 

Ohj. What precautions should be taken in seed corn selection? In 

its storage? 
Oper. Eeferences: 

1. Iowa Bui. Selection of Seed; 68. Selection, Preparation of 
Seed Corn; 77; 87. 

2. Far. Bui. Selection of Seed Corn, 193. Seed Corn Buying 
and Judging, 223. Handling of Seed Corn, 244. 

3. By Prof. P. G- Holden: The A B C of Corn Culture, p. 59. 
Pub. by Simons Pub. Co., Springfield, 0., 1906. Corn Secrets. 
Pub. by W. Atkinson & Co., Philadelphia, Pa., 25c. (a) Gath- 
ering Seed, p. 25. (b) Selecting Seed, p. 47. 

4. Successful Corn Culture. Pub. by Success Farming Pub. Co., 
Des Moines, Iowa, (a) Sowing and Preparing Exhibitions, 
p. 10. (b) Harvesting and storing, p. 13. (c) Importance 
of an Ear, p. 56. 

5. Corn, Bowmian & Crossley, p. 473; other references on pp. 
145 and 479. Read any two or more of the references; write 
a discussion of 200 or more words. Follow this w4th an out- 
line of your discussion. Do not copy the bulletins. 

EXPERIMENT 34. 

Ohj. What is a good method for testing the germination of seed 
corn ? What- percentage of the corn tested will germinate or 
grow ? 

References : 
1. Circ. No. 1 la. Mar. 1912, Home Made Seed Corn Testers. 

37 



2. The Secret of Testing, Corn Secrets, P. G. Holclen, p. 5. 
Published by the Farm Journal, Phila., W. Atkinson & Co., 
1910, price 25c. 

3. How to make the Germination Test, The A B C of Corn 
Culture. P. G. Holden, p. 23. 

4 Successful Corn Culture, P. G. Holden, p. 30. 

5. Corn, Bowman & Crossley. p. 124-144. 
Oper Saw Dust Tester. 

1. Make a wooden box of 1-incii stuff 30x30 in. by 4 in. deep. 

2. Materials. Sack of pine saw dust, gunny sack or cloth bag. 
Pail of warm water, 5 yards of (best quality) muslin, stick 
of wax crayon ("crayola"), 6 tacks, hammer, yard stick, flat 
stone or brick, pocket knife. 

3. Cut a piece of muslin to fit inside the box and extend up the 
sides for tacking (33x33 in.). Rule this into 21/2 iii- squares, 
leaving a 2 in. margin (100 squares in all). Xumber the 
squares. 

4. Fill half the box with saw dust soaked in a gunny sack over 
night in warm water or at least for one hour. Tamp and 
level with the brick. 

6. Place the ruled cloth in warm water, wring, lay over the saw 
dust and tack to the sides. 

6. Place the test ears in a row, number on a pine splint forced 
in the pith of the cob. 

'^. Begin with ear No. 1 and remove a kernel near the butt, 
one-third the distance towards the tip, turn the ear one-third 
around and remove a kernel from the center, turn one-third 
around and remove one kernel from the tip at one-third the 
distance toward the butt. Take three other kernels from op- 
posite side of ear from each of those already removed. Lay 
these six kernels in squares Xo. 1 in rows of three each, 
germs up, pointing down or toward one side of the tester. 
Remove kernels from each ear to be tested until the tester is 
filled. 

8. Cover the kernels with a piece of wet muslin about 42x72 in. 
Place 2 inches wet saw dust thereon, fold over the edges, pin 
and set in a warm place, 70° F. off the floor, placing a brick 
under the upper end. Why? 

9. Observe the test after six days, again in eight days. Record 
and make diagrams of your test. 

10. Lay aside the ears that do not germinate, that are weak or 
the roots and not stems appear; or vice versa. 

11. Scald the saw dust and cloths before using a second time. 
Why? 

Rag Doll Tester : 
1. Take a piece of good muslin, 8 in. wide and 3 feet long. With 
"crayola", draw a line thru the center, extending the long 

28 



way beginning abont 8 in. from one end, lay off 2 rows into 
3 in. squares ; number the squares in a row, moisten the cloth, 
set the kernels as in saw dust tester, only have the tips point 
towards one side, make a core out of paper or wire, roll up 
the cloth, and kernels fasten with rubber bands, soak in warm 
water 70° F. for 21/2 to 18 hours or over night, remove, set in 
a warm place, 70° 80° F. for five days by laying the roll flat 
down across two sticks for ventilation underneath, or place 
in an empty bucket with the tips down. This is one of the 
most simple and efficient testers. Scald the cloth before using 
a second time. Note — Be sure to keep the tester damp. 
2. Describe completely and accurately just what you did, rec- 
ording all results with dates. 

Note — Save the roots for a later experiment. Do not destroy 
until you have completed the experiment on roots and root 
hairs. 

EXPERIMENT 35. 

Obj. What are root hairs? Upon what part of a root are they 
found? Their functions? 

1. Germinate corn or squash seeds in sand, or use the seeds from 
your germination test. Radish seeds germinated between 
damp papers are good. 

2. Float cotton on water in a tumbler, ow thereon timothy seed 
for microscopic root work. 

3. Describe the size, shape, appearance, position and direction 
of growth of root hairs on the germinating corn. Use a hand 
magnifier. 

For Advance Work: 

4. Mount six roots of the timothy in water. Place under the 
microscope. Find a good hair. Observe. 

A. The single T-shaped cell, wall, protoplasmic granules, 
nucleus, size, shape, where it joins the epidermis of the root, 
epidermis of the root. The root hair is an epidermal cell. 

5. Draw a root hair and two epidermal cells. Label all parts. 
XoTE — By running a 10% salt solution under the cover 
glass, you can see the protoplasmic membrane, which is very 
important in osmosis. 

6. Note that the main root has a cap to protect it while growing 
thru soil. Note the darker central cylinder of the root where 
the tubes form and reside to carry the water upward. Make 
a drawing to show these facts. 

EXPERIMENT 36. 

Obj. How long is the root system of a corn plant or any other 
plant? How does its length compare with that of the stem? 
Oper. 
1. Take an average thrifty corn plant or one from a test in the 

29 



previous experiment. Cut off all the branching rootlets, lay 
them in a line; measure, record. 

2. Measure the stem system, compare these two measurements 
or systems. 

3. Is there any part of the root system that you have not taken 
into consideration or measured? What? Then, is your 
measurements too large or too small according to what you 
found in the experiment on root hairs? 

4. Make a conservative estimate, comparing all the parts of a 
plantlet above ground with those below. 

Eeferences. Far. Bui. 233, p. 5-11. Bergen's Botany, p. 47. 
Stevens, Intro, to Botany, p. 39, states that the roots of a 
corn plant, end-to-end, would reach a mile. 

EXPEEIMENT 37. 

Ohj. What is osmosis? Explain its use to plants. 
Oper. 

1. Place the large end of an egg in nitric acid and remove the 
shell only, about the area of a 25-cent piece. 

2. Fasten 12 inches of glass tul)ing al)out 5 m. m. in diameter 
to the small end by aid of grafting wax or sealing wax. Be 
sure the shell is first cleaned, scrape with a knife or file or 
wash with alcohol so the wax will stick. 

3. * Eun a sharpened wire down the tube, drill a hole thru the 

shell into the egg. 

4. Place in a glass of water, so the water half covers the shell. 
Let stand for several days; record from time to time. Sketeh- 
Grive your data and draw the apparatus. 

Answer : 

(a) Which is denser, the egg albumin or water? 

(b) In the direction of which density did .the passing take 
place ? 

(c) After the passing, did the two liquids diffuse? (Mix.) 

(d) Is there much albumin in the water? What is in the 
glass tube? 

(e) This membrane allows some fluids to pass tliru and not 
others, therefore, is semi-permeable. 

Combine your answers to a, b, c and e for a definition. 
Note — This may be done by stretching pericardium or a cliieken's 
crop, etc., over a thistle tube, tied with waxed string, fill with 
syrup or molasses, place a drop of eosin or red ink on top. 
Insert this in a tumbler of water. Support and let stand. 
Diffusion may be shown by putting a drop of eosin solution 
or red ink in a glass of water. 

80 



EXPEEIMENT 38. 

01 j. How do the soil elements obtain entrance to a plant? 
Reference: Soils, F. H. King. Soils, Burkett. Experiment With 

Plants, Osterhout. Soils, S. W. Fletchel-. Far BuL 266. 

Cyclo. Am, Ag., Vol. 1, p. 323'; 351. Intro, to Botany, 

Stevens, p. 40 
Oper 

1. Pull up some of the corn plants raised in sand or in a previ- 
ous experiment. Why does the sand cling to the roots? Ex- 
amine with a magnifier. Sketch and label roots, root hairs, 
sand grains. 

2. Draw from memory, a root hair at least one-half inch in 
diameter and two inches long, give it a porous wall of wood 
(cellulose), label. 

(a) Make a thin coating of protoplasm near the whole inner 
wall of the cell. (The protoplasmic membrane.) Shade it 
thinner towards the center, which is filled with cell sap, 
thicker or denser than soil water. 

(b) Near and sometimes touching the outer surface, make 
large irregular soil granules (sand). Between these granules 
and touching the root hairs indicate soil water ladened with 
iron, phosphorus, calcium, other necessary elements in com- 
pounds and solution. 

3. Now from your experiment on osmosis, explain just how soil 
water is drawn into the root hair. 

4. After it enters the root hair, how does it reach the next cell 
towards the interior. It finally reaches the bundles in the 
root. 

5. There are tubes (fibro- vascular bundles) in the stem to the 
leaf. End them in a corn stem. 

EXPERIMENT 39. 

01 j. Thru what part of stems does water pass upward? 
Oper. 

1. Collect a live apple twig and well matured corn stalk. 

2. Set the freshly cut ends in red ink or eosin solution for sev- 
eral hours. Examine thin cross sections as far up as stained. 

3. Compare the portions stained. 

4. The vascular bundles (tubes) carry the. water upwards. 
Where are they found in the cions? In the apple twig? The 
sap comes down in the bark of the apple twig, in a different 
part of these bundles or tube. 

5. What kind of stem is the corn as to number of colyledons in 
the seed? The apple? 

The corn stem has a hard, outer rind ; pith, with "string-like'^ 
bundles coursing thruout. For further discussion see a botany. 

31 



EXPERIMEXT 40. 

Obj. What are the parts of a leaf? Give a function of each. 
Oper, Use a plantain, an elm, a maple, and a clover leaf. 

1. Xote the "stenr' of of the leaf; peiole; the flat part,, blade; 
the base, the apex; margin, along the outlines of the blade; 
upper side, under side with differences; midrib, blade; and 
veins. From what do the}' branch? Sketch the leaf best 
showing these parts. 

2. The clover has three-parted leaf. The maple, a cut or jugged 
leaf; the plantain, an entire margin. For further leaf study 
see Gray's Botany. 

3. Of what use are the veins ? Put the petioles of several leaves, 
some thin ones, in red ink or eosin solution; let stand, sketch 
to show your results. 

4. Pull the petiole of tlie plantain leaf slowly apart to see stringy, 
threads; do not break them. AYhat are these? Use? ^Yhe^e 
do they end? 

5. Place a broken part of this petiole in red ink. Does the solu- 
tion reach the blade? Why? 

6. These are continuations of the vascular bundles in the stem. 

7. Trace water from the soil thru the leaf. 

EXPERIMEXT 41. 

Ohj. Is starch manufactured in sunlight or in darkness? What 

effect has each on starch making or photosyntliesis ? 
Oper. 

1. Cut several cork discs about the size of a cent and i/4 in. 
thick; pin two on opposite sides of a thin leaf, being careful 
not to injure it. Do this at noon on a sunny day. 

2. Pin two other corks on a leaf in early morning. 

3. Pick each set of leaves at the close of day, boil in water for 
a few minutes. Why? Boil in alcohol, note the results. 
XoTE — Keep it away from the flame as it burns easily. This 
green is chlorophyll or the coloring material in leaves. 

4. Soak the leaves in iodine. Draw and describe your results. 

5. Pick a leaf before sunrise, examine for starch. 

XoTE — Better results will be obtained if corks are pinned on sev- 
eral kinds of leaves. Some might be pinned on at the close 
of day. Tomato leaves are good. 

EXPERIMEXT 42. 

Ohj. Does a plant excrete the greater amount of water taken in 
by osmosis? If so, how? 

Reference: U. S. Yr. Bk. Ag. 1905, p. 265. Foundation of Bota- 
ny, Bergen. Elements of Botany, Stevens. Col. Botany, At- 
kinson. Fungous Diseases, Duggar. 

32 



Oper. 

1. Heat the air in a fruit jar. Why? Fill two-thirds with fresh 
green leaves. Place grafting wax or vaseline over the petioles. 
Why? Seal and let stand one or two hours. Describe the 
collection on the inner surface of the jar when cooled. What 
is it ? 

Note — A potted plant may be covered with a tumblei- resting on 
a cardboard, which has a slit for entrance and a hole large 
enough to contain the stem. External water may be kept out 
by plugging the cracks with vaseline. 

2. Peel off some under epidermis from the leaf of a Canna, 
Wandering Jew, Geranium rr India rubber plant. Mount 
in vrater under the biglier power of the microscope. N'ote — 
The openings or the stomata, the two cells, one on each side 
or guard cells, which fill with water and distend the openings 
or when tlieir water evaporates, they collapse and close the 
stomata. The water escapes by evaporation and this depends 
upon the humidity of the atmosphere, etc. 

3. What would be the results of much dust on plants? Smoke 
and other coverings? Of placing plaster on leaves? Spores 
of plant disease? Potato blight, etc. send the sprouting my- 
celium thru these stomata and here fungus diseases enter the 
plant body. 

4. See Exp. on amount of water taken in by roots. What became 
of that water? Could a plant hold all this water? Why 
take in so much water? 

EXPERIMENT 43. 

Ohj. What is a good method for making carbon dioxide? What 

is a good test for carbon dioxide? 
Oper. 

1. Place one-fourth cup of cider vinegar in a wide mouthed jar 
or fruit can, insert a teaspoonful of baking soda. 

2. Pour the gas, neither the foam nor the vinegar, into another 
jar and cover. In this jar, pour a spoonful of lime water. 
(Made by slacking quick lime, pouring on water, letting stand 
until clear, then pouring off to use.) Shake well, note the 
effect. 

3. Insert a glowing splint in the gas above the vinegar. Note 
the results. 

4. Describe just what you did and just what you saw in logical 
sequence. 

5. Blow year breath thru an ice cream soda straw or glass tube 
into some clear lime water. Result? What does it show? 

6. This is the only known gas that will turn lime water milky. 

33 



EXPEEIMENT M. 

01)]. What is a good method for making oxvgen? What is a good 

test for 0. ? 
Oper. XoTE — This gas can be made similar to that in the Exp. 

on carbon-dioxide, if the other apparatus is not handy. 

1. Collect the following apparatus, two working together: One 
sjwonful sodium peroxide, a test tube with as much water and 
a cork with a delivery tube, two small gas bottles filled with 
water inverted in a pan of water, paper folded around the 
test tube to hold it. - 

2. One person should hold the rubber delivery tube under the 
mouth of the bottle to collect the gas by upward displacement 
Avhile the other inserts the sodium peroxide into the test tube 
and corks quickl}^, holding the cork in firmly. Fill the bottles 
with gas, cover and remove. 

3. In one bottle of gas, insert a glowing splint ; in another, lime 
water and shake. 

4. Describe exactly what you did and what you saw; acQount 
for each change. 

5. If you have had chemistry write out the reaction. Others, 
see Herick's Chemistry. 

EXPERIMENT 45. 

Ohj. What part of air is 0.? Is X.? 
Reference: Plant Physiol., Duggar, p. 244. 
Oper. 

1. Float a piece of wood 1x1x114 in. on water filling two-thirds 
of a pan. 

2. Obtain a glass jar with the top and bottom about tlie same 
diameter. Measure its contents accurately. 

3. Place a piece of red phosphorus, the size of a big pin head, 
on the stick; ignite; place the mouth of the jar over it letting 
it rest on^the bottom of the pan. 

4. When burning ceases and the fumes are absorbed by the 
water, no carbon-dioxide being given off, place a glass plate 
over the moutli of the jar while under water, remove, invert. 
Test the gas. Measure the water. 

5. What did the P. burn out of the air? What gas is principally 
left? 

6. Of what did the water take the place ? 

7. Estimate the per cent of these two gases. 

8. What class of plants are X. producers? Xame some. How 
do they produce it ? See Exp. on inoculation. What are the 
two sources of H.? What is nitre? Why is X. necessary to 
a plant? Can a plant use free X. ? Why is protoplasm called 
a nitrogenous substance ? 

34 



EXPEEIMEXT 46. 
OI)j. What gas is given of! during photosynthesis or starch-mak- 
ing in the leaf? 
Oper. 

1. Place a leaf of a water plant, Eloclea or Chara, in fresh water 
within a glass dish; allow to warm in the sunlight and note 
the bubbles. Note how they glisten like ox3^gen. Count the 
the numbers in five minutes. 

2. This oxygen is given off during starch-making. 

3. There is a method of collc-^ting this gas, caught in a fuunel 
and lead into a test tube but it is not a very satisfactory 
demonstration for testing unless pyrogalic acid is used. 

4. Eecord what you did and saw. 

EXPERIMENT 47. 

Ohj. What gas is given off during the rispiration and germination 

of seeds. 
Oper. 
1. Fill two-thirds of a jar vvith soaked peas, on damp paper, 
cover tightly, allow to germinate, test the gas above them 
with a glowing splint or lime water. 
^. The Exp. can also be performed by placing leaves in a sealed 

Jar and test with Baryta water. 
3. Record what you did and saw. 

EXPERIMENT 48. 

Obj. What is the manner of growth, sizes and shapes of yeast 

plants ? 
Oper. Reference: Osterhout, Exp. With PL, p. 389. 

1. Use a compressed yeast cake, yeast foam or any other yeast. 
In one pint of luke warm water put a tablespoonful of sugar 
or honey, add one-half yeast cake, which has been rubbed to 
a paste in water (to separate the plants). Divide the liquid 
into three parts. Keep it in a temperature 70°-90° F. Necks 
of the bottles stopped loosely with cotton. Note and record 
every change, giving time, bubbles, turbidity, etc. 

,NoTE — Wishing more accuracy, in 250 C. C. of water put 10 
grams cane sugar or honev, insert 5 gms. veast prepared as 
above. Add 100 C. C. of tins water at 98.4° F. Shake, set 
aside 100 C. C. of this solution as above. 

2. After a few hours, mount some of the sediment or liquid and 
place under the microscope. Note the old, dead cells with 
cracked wooden walls; the little, young plants budding from 
l)arents. The small granules of protoplasm in the joining 
yeast cells, and the cell wall. 

3. Run some Muthyl Blau — greenish stain — under the cover 
glass. This will stain the woody walls of dead cells, but not 
living healthy cells. 

35 



4. Compare the dead cells with the living; is the yeast of good 
quality ? 

5. If the yeast action is prompt soon after preparation, the 
quality is good. Did it act quickly? Xote — Yeast may 
multiply by spores similar to corn smut. 

6. Describe the use of 3^east in (a) fermentation; (b) bread 
making; (c) value to the country in dollars. 

If you cannot see the cell wall, run glycerine or 20% salt 
solution over the specimen. 

SOILS 

The instructor should assign those experiments whicli are best 
adapted to his course and class. It is not intended that all should 
be performed. 



36 



EXPEEIMENT 49. 

Obj. How many kinds of minerals in this vicinity? How may I 

tell each? 
Oper. Excursion 1. 

1. The instructor should take the class to a sand bank, gravel 
pit or dry creek bed, gather the different minerals, place 
them in paper bags, or better, in cloth bags made in a sewing 
class; label all specimens in the field, bring to the laboratory 
for further study. It does not matter if two or three are unit- 
ed in a rock. 

2. Fill out the following table for each mineral : Color, lustre*^ 
smell, taste, feel, hardness, fracture*, acid test*, special, 
name. Note — For elementary or ninth grade work, omit 
those marked*. 



Color 



Lustre 

No* 



Smell Teste 



Feel 



Hard- 
ness 



Frae- Acid 
ture Test 
No.* No.* 



t;hem 
Com p. Special 
No 



Name 



light 
etc. 



IS 



reflected from the surface; 



Luster : Held so the 
glossy, silky, resinous, waxy. 

Hardness: The scale passes from 1 to 10. Talc or soapstone 
is 1 ; diamond, 10 ; quartz, 7 ; back of the point of a knife is about 
5; glass, 5i/^; brass pin point, 3; finger nail, 2%; 7 and 8 are 
neither scratched by a knife or by quartz. 

Fracture : Note a broken surface, smooth, splintery, etc. 
Acid Test : Place 2 drops of nitric acid thereon and if it effervesces, 
calcium is present. 



37 



Eeference: Eock and Min., Paisson, p. 327-378. Key to Min., 
Crosby. 

Rocks and Minerals in this vicinity : 

Amphibole. 

Apatite (Cal. Phos.). 

Biotite (Mica). 

(Jhert or Flint. 

Chlorite. 

Dolomite. 

Feldspar. 

Granite. 

Greenstone — Chert, Feldspar, Quartz, Calcilc. I Iciiinl ilc. 

Gypsum (Cal. Sulph.). 

Hematite. 

Iron Pyrites (FooFs Gold). 

Jasper. 

Kaolin. 

Limestone. 

Limonite. 

Muscovite. 

"Nigger Heads. 

Orthoclase. 

Plagioclase. 

Porphyry=Quartz-j- Feldspar. 

Quartz. 

Sandstone. 

Serpentine. 

Shale. 



38 



EXPERIMENT 50. 

Ohj. How many rocks are found in this vicinity and how may I 
know each? 

Oper. 1. With sacks and hammers take an excursion to the sand 
bank, creek beds and stone piles. Collect specimens of each, 
label and take to the laboratory. 

2. Fill out the following table : N"ame, volcanic or sedimentary, 
minerals composing, color, sperial. 



NAME 


Volcanic or 

Sedimentary 

[SeeaGeology] 


Minerals 
Composing 


Color 


Chem. 
Cemp. 


Special 



































































































EXPERIMENT 51. 

Ohj. From what and by what is soil made? 
Oper. 



. 1. Phys. Geog., Chamberlain and Salsbury. Darwin, 
Theory of Vegetable Mold. See a Geol. or a Phys. Geog. 

2. Discuss the part that the following take in soil making : Min- 
erals, Rocks, Weather, Winds, Streams, Plants, Burrowing 
Animals, Earthworms, Glaciers and Man. 

3. Write a composition on this topic after reading in a text. 
Do not copy the books. 

4. Cite evidences of these on the excursion. 



39 



EXPERIMENT 52. 

Ohj. What are the kinds of soil in this vicinity and a cause for 

the formation of each? 
Ope;'. 1. Make an excursion to the different soil areas of the 

vicinity^ collect samples and bring to the laboratory. 

2. Briefly describe the excursion. 

3. If dry, grind between two sticks to separate ; better use the 
soil while damp. Rub between the fingers for grit. Fill out 
the following table : IS'ame, location, source in nature, color, 
taste, odor, texture, shape of particles,, plasticity, price per A. 
(estimated), acid test. 



Name 


Location 


Source in 
Natui-f 


Color 


Taste 


0<lor 


T^x- 
























































1 

1 












i. 













Shape of Grit and 
Particles 


Plasticity 


Price per A 
(Estimated) 


Acid Test 








































'! 



•hu'. 



Location — Where you found it. 

Source — From what and by what formed. 

Odor — Moisten before smelling. 

Texture — Grains, granules, lumps, fineness of particles. 

Shape of particles — Use a hand magnifier. 

IMasticity — Mix with a small amount of water, compare witli 

Price — Inquire. For agricultural purposes only. 

40 



Acid lest — Put soil in a glass or earthen jar, place thereon two 
or three drops of nitric acid. Effervescing shows lime. 

Soils : 

Coarse gravel Soil or humus CHay. 

Fine gravel. Sub-soil. Loam. 

Coarse sand. Geest. Sandy loam. 

Fine sand. Hardpan. Silt, etc. 

EXPERIMENT b:i. 
Obj. How may I distinguish hunms, sand, silt and clay under 

the microscope ? 
Oper. Reference: Ele. Ag., Warren, p. 78. 

1. Use gumbo (the best), humus, silt, clay, or all three. 

2. Description : 

a. Color— White, gray, brown, red, black. 

b. Shape of particles— Angular, rounded, irregular, etc. 

c. Grains — Simple, compound. 

d. Size of grains — Coarse, medium, fine, very fine, etc. 
(See text.) 

3. Mount in water, a very small amount of gumbo on a slide 
cover, etc. 

4. One division on the lower part of the micrometer eyepiece is 
one sixty-fifth m. m. on the high power, one two hundred 
fiftieth m. m. A micron or "Mu" is a millionth of a meter. 
Microscopes will vary. With the newer microscopes, low 
power, eyepiece 10, read the micrometer scale and divide by 
6. For the high power divide by 25. 

5. Draw to show quartz, humus, silt, kinds of sand, clay, differ- 
ent rock, particles, etc. Measure and state the diameter of 
each in microns. 

6. Describe the appearance of each as seen under the micro- 
scope. 

EXPERIMEXT 54. 
Ohj. What soil elements are found in a cup of rich garden soil? 

Give the per cent, of each. 

Ref.: CVjrnell Yr. Bk. Ag. 1910 p. i)52. 
Oper. 

1. Take a leveled glassful of dry, rich garden soil. 

2. Separate the pebbles if there be any. Weigh. 

3. Bv aid of sieves separate the sands as far as possible. Weigh. 
For advanced work only : 

These may be measured by the micrometer scale in the mi- 
croscope ; some by a ruler. For the low power, eyepiece 10, read 
the scale and divide by 6 ; for the high power, divide by 25. 
This will enable one to distinguish the different sands, etc. 
Be sure tkat neither humus nor roots of any kind are kept 
with the sand, etc. 

41 



4. Place the remainder in a frait can, 1-3 filled with water, 
shake for 5 minutes, pour into a flat dish, let the clay settle for 
5 minutes. Dry it and weigh. 

5. Pour off the top and evaporate the silt and humus left. Dry 
and weigh. 

6. The humus may be burned out by heat. Did humus settle 
in the clay? How do you know? Burn dry clay; color? 
What color does humus give to the soil? 

Pebbles 5-2 m. m. ■ . 

Gravel 2-1 m. m. 

Coarse sand 1-.5 m. m. 

Medium sand .5-. 25 m. m. 

Fine sand .25-. 10 m. m. 

Very fine sand .10-. 05 m. m. 

Silt .05-.005 m. m. 

Clay .005-0. 

Humus, size varies. 

EXPERIMENT 55. 

Obj. Wiiat is a good method for classifjdng gravel and sand? 
What are the classes? Sizes? Percents of each? 

Oper. W^arren, p. 78. Note. — It is best to work three samples 
taken from the top, middle, and bottom of the pile. Screens 
or sieves may be obtained from the Cent. Sci' Co., Cambridge, 
Mass., 20-40-60-80-100 meshed. A mesh is the distance 
between two adjacent wires — 20 meshed is 20 meshes to the 
inch. 

1. Weigh 40 grams of very coarse sand. Dry by heat. 

2. Measure with a hietric ruler, the particles of gravel, or use 
the sieve; sort out and weigh all more than 1 m. m. in 
diameter. Label and record. 

3. Measure, sort out and weigh the particles of coarse sand. 
4. Run the remainder thru the sieve, separate into lots, place 
samples under the microscope, measure the largest and the 
smallest, classify, weigh and record. If you have no micro- 
scope, treat the screenings as sand, and the remainder as 
silt and clay. Record each and find the per cent. 

EXPERIMENT 56. 

Ohj. What is capillarity? Upon what does it depend? 
Oper. 

1. Fasten two glass plates or microscopic slides together by a 
rubber band or string. Insert a broom splint along one long 
vertical edge. 

2. Set one-fourth inch of the base or one end in water stained 
with red, black ink, or eosin. Describe what happens. 
Sketch. 

43 



3. Increase the space between the glasses. Is the water drawn 
higher? Dry the glasses. 

4. Press the glasses closely together and determine this effect 
on capillarity. Draw a conclusion. 

5. Experiment to see if capillarity will work horizontally as 
well as vertically. Place water along the edges; along tlic 
top. Describe what you did and what took place. 

6. Capillarity may be shown by the end of a lamp wick, blot- 
ter or a cube of loaf sugar placed in red ink. It can be sho^^^ll 
with glass tubes and straws inserted in water which is drawn 
above the common level. 

7. Answer: What would be the nature of the soil particles in 
which capillarity brings the water highest? Lowest? What 
would be the effect on the capillarity of rolling or packing the 
soil. Explain : How would it effect the soil in dry weather ? 
How does capillarity aid plants in dry spells? Toward what 
does it always act? 

EXPERIME^TT 57. 
Ohj. How many kinds of moisture in the soil and wliere does 

each reside? 
Oyer. Ref: Rural Sch. Ao-., Davis, p. 108. Ele. of Ag., W^arreii. 

Far. Bui. 408. 

1. Record your results by a table. 

2. Tie cheese cloth over the small end of a student's lamp chim- 
ney; weigh. Fill one-third with air-dried soil; weigh. Record 
weight of the soil. 

3. Pour the. soil in an evaporating dish, heat for 15 minutes to 
half an hour at a boiling temperature or until the weight is 

constant. Do not hum. This drives off the hydroscopic water 
which can be driven off in no other way. Pour the soil in the 
chimney; weigh. What per cent hydroscopic water? It 
should be about 10 per cent. This water surrounds the parti- 
cles and could not be removed bv evaporation unless heated to 
212° F. 

4. While the above is drying, you may take an equal weight of 
the same kind of soil and place it in the chimney or later use 
the absolutely dry soil. Firm the soil l)y jarring it, hitting the 
hand three or four tiuies on the table, etc., or l)y punching 
witli a wire so there are no large spaces. Do not pack. 

5. IMace ill a rack or support. Pour water thereon slowly so it 
does not stand on the surface to any great extent, until it be- 
gins to seep thru or becomes saturated. When it ceases drip- 
ping measure the gravitational water which gravity drew 
downward only thru the huii^'e r-orps. 

6. Weigh the chimney and wet soil. How much capillary water 
remauied in the soil? This lies between the soil grains, also 
surrounding and in the small pores. 

43 



7. Gravitational or free water iiio\es downward only; capillary, 
up, down and sidewise, but generally towards the dry area. 
Hydroscopic has . no movement and can be removed only by 
heating and passing off as steam. Eecord your result by this 
table. 



Xame of soil 

Weight of chimney 

Weight of chimney and soil 

Weight of chimney and soil after heating 

Weight of dried soil . . 

Weight of dry soil 

Weight of hydroscopic water 

Weight of chimney soil and cap. water . 
Weight of capillary water 



8. Is the hydroscopic water included in the capillary? Of what 
value is gravitational water ? What l)ecomes of it ? How does 
it aid capillarity? In what direction does capillarity act? 
Can a plant use all of the hydroscopic water? All of gr^f^-i- 
tational water? How mav gravitational water become harm- 
ful ? 

EXPERIMENT 58. 

Ohj. Which soil examined has the greatest capillarity? Of what 

use is capillarity? 
Oper. Eef. Far. Bui. 408, p. 40. Yr. Bk. 1905, p. 269. 

1 . By means of strings or rubber bands, fasten pieces of muslin 
4x8 in. over the small end of a student lamp chimney (com- 
mon chimneys will do.) Weigh each chimney and place in 
the racks. 

2. Take dried, coarse sand, fine sand, '^soil" and clay loam, or 
any two of the above. EoU out the lumps (run thru a 20 mesh 
sieve), fill all large air spaces by pummeling down with a 
wire or jarring on the table. Do not pack but fill the chimney 
level full. Weigh. 

3. Place the cloth-covered end in empty tumblers. When ready, 
record the time and fill all the tumblers at the same time 
with water. Record the measurements from the bottom of the 
chimney. 

4. Record your observation by table until the water reaches its 
final height. Remove the tumblers, let drain, weigh, record. 

44 



Chimney 


sou 


Hght. 1st 
V« hour 


3 Hrs. 


(5 Hrs. 


24 Hrs. 


4S Hrs. 


Etc. 


1st 






. 




2nd 








1 




8r<l 


' 






j 
1 




4th 










1 




5th 













Note. — Observation may be taken at other convenient times. 

4. If necessary, one may nse tomato cans with nail holes in the 
bottom. 

5. Answer : In which does the water rise most rapidly ? Highest ? 
Which draws up the greatest amount? Which would dry out 
soonest? Which would be best for plants during a drought? 
Why? 

6. The instructor will further demonstrate the height by aid of 
large, long tubes. 

Note. — The above weights may be used in an experiment following. 

EXPERIMENT 59. 

Ohj. What effect does cultivation of soil in dry weather have upon 

the capillary water? 
Oper. 

1. Set a cube of loaf sugar in a saucer. 

2. Place as much confectionery or pulverized sugar on the top 
as it will hold. 

3. When ready, pour a little red ink in the saucer. Describe the 
results. Account for each. You may use bluing or any colored 
ink. 

4. In a cultivated field, to what is the loaf sugar comparable? 
The pulverized? The red liquid? What draws the liquid up 

the loaf sugar? Effect of pulverizing soil on the capillarity? 
Effect of packing? The effect of cultivating corn before or 
during a drought? Why cultivate just after a rain? In dry 
farming, why till an unsowed field all summer? 

EXPEEIMEXT 60. 

Ohj. What effect has tillage and mulches on evaporatiou of water 

from soils? 
Oper. 

1. Fill nine-tenths of four tin cans equal in size, with dry .^aud. 
Number, weigh and record. 

2. Pour an equal amount of water in each. (20 oz.) 



45 



3. Pack number one; pJace some finely cut straw-mulch on 
number 2 ; 23lace a dry dust -mulch on number 3 ; sow oats two 
inches deep, in number ,four. 

Weigh again and record. 

4. Weigh and record each day for. one week or until results are 
obtained. 

5. Be sure to give all the cans the same exposure to heat, light 
and wind. Why ? 

6. Record your results by a table. Explain. 

EXPERIMENT 61. 

Ohj. Wliat effect upon the texture has tilling the soil when it 

puddles ? 
Oper. Far. Bui. 408, p. 41. 

1. Use clay, loam, sand and peat or any other four soils (gum- 
bo, etc.) 
'I. Take one level cupful of each soil, mix separately with water 
until it puddles or pours like mush. 

3. Let stand for 15 minutes then pour off the free water and 
stir again. 

4. Dry over a slow tire for several hours or in the hot sunshine. 

5. Which soil baked ? Which could be most easily cultivated 
after drying? Which cultivated soonest after a rain? Which 
never cultivated when wet? Wliich will be "earliesf in the 
spring ? 

EXPERIMENT 62. 

Ohj. Wliat effect does packing the soil have upon its capillarity? 
Opev. 

1. Take four cloth-closed cliimiieys of hiimii.-. 

2, Pack two tightlv v\-ith soil and leave two i)roi)3rlv hut loose- 
ly filled. 

.'). Place the cylinders in tlie rack with the \o\\^2V parts in tum- 
blers of water. 

4. Xote the rapidity of capillarity by recording the height of 
moist soil in each every half hour. 

5. What bearing does this have on farm practice? 

6. Discuss rolling of fields; packing the soil on top i.t ^wds; 
packing around set-out plants as cabbage, etc. 

EXPERIMEXT 63. 

Ohj. Which one of these soils has the greatc>l capariiv iur lioldijig 

water? Ref. : F. B. 408, p. 30. Yr.^Bk. 1005, p. 268. 
Oper . 

1. Four work together; record all Work hv a tablj. 

2. Use gravel, fine sand, "soil"' (humr.s) and clay loam oi- any 
three different soils that are easily obtained. 

3. Weigh the chimneys with strings and cloths. Record. 

4. Fill y^ of the three chimneys with 'l"^ T t-' --oj]-'. Vrei'rh and 

46 



determine the weight of the soil in each. Observe the pre- 
cautions in a previous experiment for loosel}^ filling. 

5. Have three students with a measured amount of water (4 oz.) 
ready; also a time-keeper. 

6. Eecord the time, all pour together, keeping the soil surface 
just water covered. When it drips thru, cease pouring and rec- 
ord the time and water used together with the name of the 
soil. 

8. Cover the surface of the soil to prevent evaporation ; let stand 
until dripping ceases which Avill be several hours — sometimes 
24 hours or even three days — then weigh. Watch to determine 
which holds the most water. Tabulate all records. 

9. Which took water the fastest? Which the most porous? 
• Which holds the most water? Which contains the smallest 

particles. 

10. Describe how each of these soils cares for rain water during a 
light shower; a heavy shower. 

11. How can this capacity be lessened by a farmer? Can it be 
increased ? 

EXPEEIMENT 64. 
Ohj. What effect does the interruption of capillarity have upon 
the soil? 

1. Fill two-thirds of a lamp chimney with garden soil, place 
about one-half inch of grass, straw or the like, then fill with 
the soil; cover the ends. and rack the chimneys. 

2. Fill another chimney with the soil, etc. 

3. Place the ends of these in glasses of water, at the same time, 
let stand until results are obtained. 

4. What effect does plowing under a thick sod of clover have on 
the crop following? Plowing under tall weeds? A thick coat 
of manure? Straw? How is this difficulty overcome? 

EXPEPtlMENT 65. 

Obj. Does the same volume of different soils have the same weight ? 

Wliv? 
Oper. 

1. Weio-h four cups, number and record eaeli. 

2. Take a heaping cup of each, loose humus, sand, clay and 
loam under the same conditions, as to water, packing, lumps, 
etc. 

3. Level the cups (but do not pack) ]jy running a straight-edge 
over the rim of the cups. 

4. Weigh each and figure the weights of the soil; compare. 

5. Which is the heaviest? Why? Lightest? Why? What advan- 
tages has light soil ? ' Heavy soil ? How does the farmer over- 
come these disadvantages? 

47 



Obj. 

Oper 
1. 

2. 



Ohj. 
Oper 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 
5. 



EXPERIMENT 66. 

What effects has lime and humus on the water content of 
clay ? 

Punch holes in the bottom of three tin cans, weigh and rec- 
ord each, or use student lamp chimneys. 
Fill them as follows: Xo. 1 with clay; Xo. 2 with clay mixed 
wdth plaster or lime; Xo. 3 with clay mixed with humus or 
rotting manure. 
Weigh each and record. 

Place an equal amount of water on the soil of each until it 
drips thru; cover to prevent evaporation, let remain until 
drippings cease. Eecord the amount of water used and the 
weight of each. 

Which retained the most water? Took it most readily? Gave 
it off most readily? Of what use is this to the farmer? 

EXPERIMEXT 67. 
What per cent of this soil is water? Organic matter? Min- 
eral matter? 

. Ref. : Ele. of Ag., Warren, p. 75. Soil, Hopkins, Soil, King. 
Soils, Burkett. Far. Bui. 408. 
Use freshly collected soil or humus. 

If different members of. the class will use different soils and 
compare results, greater knowledge will be gained. 
Some work with soil, some with sub-soil. 
Two or more work together. 
Record your results by a table. 



Dish or crucible 

Dish and soil 

Soil 

Dish and dry soil 

Weight of dry soil 

Per cent of water 

Dish and soil (after burning) 

Organic matter 

Per cent of organic matter . 
Weight of mineral matter . , 
Per cent of mineral matter 



WEICJIIT 



6. Use about 40 grams of freshly collected soil. (Xote.- 
more the better.) 



-The 



48 



7. When drying, heat a little hotter than boiling for one hour, 
or more if necessary. (Do not burn.) 

8. To burn the organic matter, heat to a dull redness for one 
' hour. ^"OTE.— If you have no crucible, dry in a tomato can; 

burn out the organic matter in an iron shovel, over red coals. 

9. Give the changes in color that took place in drying and burn- 
ing. Account for each change. 

10 ^Yhich holds the more Avater? The more humus? What re- 
lation do these bear to each other ? Which has the most min- 
eral matter? What was tlie only substance that heat would 
not remove? . 

11 The results generally given are: (a) Mineral matter, 55- 
?5%; (b) Organic, 2-5%. (c) Water in: Sand, 20-30%; 
rich sandy loam, 30-40%; rich clay loam, 40-60 %,; heavy 
clav 60-70%o; garden soil (rich in loam), 'r0-90%o'; dnst 
(aiV dried), 10%o good corn soil, 25%c). Best growth soil has 
about one-half water. 
Verifv vour results. 



12 



Ohj. 

Opet 
1. 



2. 



3. 



4. 
5. 



6. 



EXPEKIMEIN^T 68. 
Is there air in the soil? If so, what per cent? Which con- 
tains more air, damp or dried soil? 

Eef . : Far. Bui. 408. Soils, Burkett. 
In a glass tumbler, place a measured amount of damp soil 
(200 c. c.) filling seven-eights of the glass. In another glass, 
place an equal amount of measured dry soil of the same kind. 
If you have a thistle tube, insert this, and pour the water 
therein so the water will reach the bottom first ; but it is not 
necessary. This may be done by making openings in the soil. 
Continue pouring a measured amount -of water on or in the 
soil until it begins to stand on the surface. How much water 
did you use? 

Do the same with dry soil. 

Why did "bubbles come out of the soil?" Of what did the 
water poured in the soil take the place ? Which would con- 
tain the more air space, soil composed of fine particles or 
large particles? Why? 
Fill out this table. 



Weight of 

Volume 

Water added 

Air space 

Per cent of air 

49 



SOILS 



Wet 



Dry 



7. Add the per cents you obtained in the experiments to show 
mineral matter, humus, water and air. How much should 
this equal? Why? 

EXPERIMENT 69. 
Obj. Will roots and plants live without soil air? 
Oper. 

1. Place a Tradescantia (Wandering Jew) stem in packed clay 
in a glass jar. If needs be, pour paraffin over the top to 
shut out air. 

2. In jar No. 2, place another plant in damp sand, not paraf- 
fined, but having an air hole in the bottom of the jar. Let 
stand until results are noted. 

Note — This may be sho\\Ti by sowing wheat in two boxes; one 
with air openings in the bottom; the other closed and soil air 
crowded out by water keeping the soil "marshy". 

EXPREIMENT 70. 
Obj. Which soil has the greatest per cent of air space,, sand 

humus (soil) or clay-loam? 
Oper. Ref . : F. B. 408, p. 40. 

1. Pleace a measured amount of each soil in a glass. (It is 
better to weigh the glass, the soil and the water.) 

2. Pour the water on each as in a previous experiment, record- 
ing just the amount of water used each time (by weight) ; 
weigh each soil after it is filled with water. 

3. Of what did the water take the place? 

4. Record your results by a table and verify them by a previous 
experiment. 

5. How is it posible for equal volumes of these soils to have un- 
equal amounts of water? Explain. What relation does this 
bear to agriculture? 

EXPERIMENT 71. 
Obj. What effects has air-slacked lime on plastic soils? 
Oper. 

1. Weigh out six samples of cla}^, 300 grams each. Divide as 
follows : 

No. 1 — Add no lime as a check. 
No. 2 — 1 gram of lime. 
No. 3 — 5 grams of lime. 
No. 4 — 10 grams of lime. 
No. 5 — 10 grams of medium sand. 
No. 6 — 10 grams of humus. 

2. Mix each thoroly; then add a very little water, enough to 
make it plastic. Roll each sample into three mud balls of 
about 100 grams each. Set aside to dry. 

3. Test the resistance or tenacity of each by one of the follow- 
ing methods. (Record all results by a table.) 

50 



(a) Fix two sticks like a nut cracker, and decide on the 
relative power to mash the balls. 

(b) Drop the balls at a given height and compare to see 
which is the hardest. 

(c) Place under a board, stand on the board and see whieli 
breaks easiest. 

(d) Try to break particles with the fingers. 

4. Of what value is this information to a farmer in tilling soil? 
Explain, 

EXPERIMENT 72. 
Obj. What is a good test for lime? How is lime prepared? 
Oper. Ref.: U. 8. Dept. Ag..Circ. 195, p. 15. 

1. Use a small piece of stone thought to contain lime. Bonu 
and marble are good. 

2. Place a drop of nitric or sulphuric acid on it. Use precau- 
tion with acids — poisonous and "burns". If it gives off bub- 
bles of carbonic acid gas, lime is present; otherwise none, or 
it is not good limestone to use. 

3. Burn in a stove for a day, a stone containing lime; when 
thoroly burned, remove. 

4. To test it, you may mix this lime with water and when the 
water settles, pour off and blow your breath into it with a 
straw. • Carbon dioxide turns clear limewater milky. 

EXPERIMENT 73. 

Obj. What effect has lime on flocculation of soils? 
Oper. 

1. Fill one-half of each of two glasses with rain water (100 c. 
c). Place in one, 14 gram of slacked lime. Add to each 
tumbler one gram of powdered clay (sifted thru a 100 meshed 
soil sieve). Stir well, let s.ettle. 

3. Pour off the water; examine the sediment in each from time 
to time. Good soil has small compound particles about the 
size of timothy seed. 

EXPERIMENT 74. 
Obj. What effect does a nutrient solution have upon sprouting 

corn ? 
Oper. Ref. : Col. Bot., Atkinson, p. 29. Plant Physol., Sachs. 
1 Soak a cupful of corn in warm running water over night; re- 
move, sprout between damp cloths. Four students work to- 
gether. 

2. Carefully plant ten sprouted seedlings in soil. 

3. Dip paper in melted paraffin, let cool; fill a glass tumbler 
with distilled water, cover with the waxed paper, tie down. 
Punch holes therein, place roots carefully, so they dip in the 
distilled water. 

4. Set up the following like this only vary the solution. Cover 

51 



glass jars with black paper or cloth to prevent green algae 
growing in your solution. Keep the jars filled. 

6. Use tap water. 

7. Use nutrient solution without iron. 

9. If you wish, you may omit one of the food substances as pot- 
assium nitrate and see how it effects the plant. 

10. Label and let stand in proper conditions until results are ob- 
tained. Tabulate your results. You may weigh the plants 
when you finish, etc. 

11. You may experiment further by setting up sprouted peas un- 
der different conditions, leaving a food element out of four 
tumblers but four which has all the elements. 

EXPERIMENT 75. 
Obj. What is a good test for an acid? An alkali? A neutral? 
Oper. 

1. Tap water, vinegar, lime water, litmus paper which can be 
purchased at a drug store or you may use cochineal. 

2. For lime water, slack one-half cup of quick lime in one pint 
of water, let settle, pour off the clear liquid for use. This 
ma}^ be refilled several times. 

3. For cochenial, which is the bodies of dead insects, place a 
teaspoon of pulverized powder in a small bottle two-thirds 
filled with alcohol. This liquid is called the "indicator". 
When dropped in aci'd it turns reddish brown; if dropped in 
alkali, a purple blue. Add a few drops to the substance to 
be tested. 

4. Record by a table. Place the tip of the red litmus peper in 
each of these in this order: lime water, water, vinegar. 

5. Likewise place the blue litmus paper in vinegar, water, then 
lime water 

6. Leave the litmus paper blue: rinse, dry and save. 

7. Test the folloAving at home and toll whetlier acid, alkali or 
neutral. 

Ammonia Soap or saltpeter Tomato juice 

Soap Sugar Orange juice 

Sour milk Tooth preparations Apple juice 

Sweet milk x\shes or lye Rain water 

Magnesia Dutch cleanser Ink 

Baking soda Tea Sugar, etc. 

Coffee 
'* ' EXPERIMEXT 76. 

Ohj. Are the specimens of soil given us acid, alkali or neutral. 
Give a good method for testing. 

Oper, Ref.: U. S. Dept. Ag. Circ. 195, p. 21. 
1. Boil a tablespoonful (the more the better) of the soil to be 
tested in a small amount of water. Let it settle, pour off the 
clear liquid, test with both colors of litmus, leaving the litmus 

52 



in the solution for 10 minutes, if necessary. For colors, see 
previous experiment. 

2. Note — The teacher may prepare alkali soil by mixing wich 
Dutch cleanser or ashes; acid, with acid or vinegar or collect 
acid and alkali coils in the field. 

3. Another method of testing is simply to cover both colors or 
litmus paper with the dampened ''mushy" soil, let stand over 
night; if both are red, the soil is acid; if both are blue, it is 
alkali. It will generally act in 15 or 20 minutes. 

EXPERIMENT 77. 

01) j. How may I remove acidity from the soil? ("Sweeten sour 
soil.") 

Oper. If an acid soil is not at hand, prepare one as in the previ- 
ous experiment, or test it to make sure. 

1. Take a cupful of damp, sour soil and stir in lime, testing it 
from time to time until it shows neither acid nor alkali but 
neutral. No harm if it is slightly alkaline because you can 
use it in the following experiment. 

2. Wood ashes will serve the same purpose as lime. 

EXPERIMENT 78. 

Obj. How may I make an acid substance neutral? (Neutralize 

an acid.) 
Oper. 

1. Take a small amount of vinegar and dilute with water until 
it just stands the acid test. Dilute some lime water until it 
just tests alkali. 

2. Pour a very little lime water (diluted), very slowly, into the 
vinegar, stir well, test; continue until the solution is neither 
acid nor alkali (neutral). 

3. How may a farmer treat acid or "sour" soil? If you spill 
acid on a cloth, what is best to do? Name some acids? Some 
alkalis ? 

EXPERIMENT 79. 

Obj. Does moisture effect the temperature of soil? If so, how? 
Oper. 

1. Suspend from a board two thermometers that register the 
same. Place a small covered cup of water near one and run 
a lamp wick from this to and around the bulb of the other. 

2. Record the temperature of each for five hours of the day. 
, Use a table. 

3. Answer: Is a wet or dry soil preferable for early vegetables? 
What would be the composition of such soil? The effect of 
a wet season upon early garden truck? How can a farmer 
remedy this defect? Note — This may he performed with 
soil dampened but not so successfully. 

53 



EXPEEIMENT 80. 
Oper. 

Obj. Does color effect the temperature of soil? If so, how? 
Oper. 

1. Fill properly, three small boxes with clamp garden soil. Chalk 
boxes will do. 

2. Cover the surface as follows: (a) Chalk dust (white); 
(b) soot, lamp block or charcoal (black) ; (c) brick dust 
(red) ; (d) natural. n 

3. Insert a thermomether one inch below the surface and record 
temperature of each. Take several readings ; day and night ; 
sunshine and cloudy. 

4. Record your result by a table. Xote — Seeds may be planted 
in these boxes and results observed. 

EXPERIMENT 81. 

Ohj. Does the slope effect the temperature of soil ? If so how ? 
Oper. 

1. Fill three boxes with garden soil. 

2. Slant one thirty degrees from the horizontal toward the north, 
another thirty degrees toward the south; the third keep hori- 
zontally. 

3. Test the temperature as in the previous experiment by in- 
serting a thermometer one-half inch in the soil. 

4. Take observation several times in one day. Record by a table. 

EXPERIMENT 82. 
Ohj. How may alkali be removed from the soil? 
Oper. 
Oper. If an alkali soil is not at hand, use that from the previous 

experiment or mix soil with lime, potash or wood ashes until 

it tests alkaline. 

1. Punch six nail holes, near the center, in the bottom of a tin 
can. Fill tw^o-thirds witli a tested alkaline soil and set this 
can in another dish. 

2. Pour water on top of the alkaline soil, let it seep thru; test 
the seepage with litmus. It it contains alkali tlie drainage 

is carrying the alkali from the soil. 

3. Alkali soil of irrigated countries and of the west are made 
neutral by running water over it and draining tlie alkali un- 
derneath. 

4. Account for alkali on the surface of soil. 

EXPERIMENT 83. 

Obj. What are the soil areas of our State and Country ? 

Oper. References: Soils of Iowa, Bui. 82. Ames. Geol. of 
Blackhawk Co., Prof. M. F. Arey. U. S. Bureau of Soils, 
1902-1003, p. 861, with maps. Soil Fertility, Hopkins, p. 90. 

54 



Geo Map of Iowa, F. A. Wilder, 1906; State GeolDes 
Mo'nes Outline Maps, J. S. Latta, Cedar Ea Is, Iowa. Iowa 
Yr Bk. of Ag., 1912. Bui. 95, Ames; also 15 and 119. 

1 Consult Bui. 82 or other reference or wriet from lectures. 

2. Name the soil areas with formation of each. 

3*. Briefly describe the soil of each. 

4 Describe the soil of your home county. . , ,, , 

5 Name fiv of the best farming counties Five of the poorest 
Which are the best for Corn? Melons? Orchards ? Frmt ? 
Celery? Potatoes? Market gardening? Wheat and graes? 

See Iowa Yr. Bk., 1912. i i i , „ii +i,p =Ail 

■6. On a blank outline map, sketch, color and label all the .oil 

7. oTanother map, indicate the answers to the questions above. 

SOIL BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Elementary References: Exp. With Plants, Osterhout, MacMillan 
& Co Ag. Text Books, Warren, Davis, Mayne & Ha ch, 
Bailey Mann, Burket, Stevens & Hill, Ferguson, Lewis, Nolan, 
Goffi & Mayne, Sheppard & McDowell, Hatch & Hazelwood, 
Soul I Tu/pin, Upham, Wood, ^sher & Cotton. Ju^t Prin 
of Soil Fertil., A. Vivian, Orange Judd & Co Soil m Kela 
tion to plants Davis, Oxford. 100 Exp. m Ele. Ag E. D. 
jXnson'ciimco, Cal.. U^S. B;^-S/\Cn. 18 Washing- 
ton D C. Off. Exp. Sta. Circ. 52, 84. ^r- Bk. of Ag, IJOl, 
iqo'a 903 1904 1905, etc. Far. Bui. U. S. Dept. Ag. 3, 6, 
16 18 20 '26 27, 31 40, 44, 52, 76, 77, 89, 92, 94 102, 124, 
133 144 161 164, 186, 187, 195, 218, 245, 246, 266. F. B. 
109 D 16 gives list of books for farmers' reading course on 
soU^'^'lowar Research Bui. 1. 3, 4, 5, 6, 9; Bui. 19, 95 
S' 82 124; Circ. 15, 10. Bui. 82, Ames, gives soil areas 
of state. 
Advanced ^'^fj^l^^'^^^^,,,,^^^ g^n,, Burkett, Orange Judd & 
Co Soil s,'Fletcher, Doubleday. Page & Co. The Soil Kmg 
MacMillan. The Soil, Hall J. Murray London. Phy^ of 
Snil Kino- F H King, Madison, Wis. Manual ot Ag., boil, 
C ps D 0. Barto, D. 'c. Heath . Soil Phy. Lab. Guide, St.v- 
enson & Lamb, Orange Judd & Co. Soil Fertil C . 6 Hop- 
Idns Ginn & Co. Soil, Fletcher, Doubleday, Page & Co. 



DAIRYING 



EXPERIMENT 84. 

Obj. What are the parts used in judging a milch Cow? 

Oper. Reference : F. B. 106. Ele. of Ag., Halligan, D. C. Heath 
& Co. Judging Live Stock, Craig, Kenyon Pub. Co., Des 
Moines, Iowa. Elements of An. Husb., Craig, Webb Pub. Co. 

1. Study the parts of a live cow. Have students paste a picture 
of a cow in their note books, or outline one by tracing a 
cow cut from pasteboard, or from tin. The teacher should 
point out the parts, liaving the students label and recognize 
each. 

2. Head: Poll, horn, ear, face, muzzle, moutli, lower jaw. cheek, 
eye, lids, lashes, etc., forehead, neck. 

3. Body: Dewlap, brisket, shoulder, witliers, cliest, girth, chine, 
back, ribs, barrel, milk veins, and wells flank stifle joint„nand 
back, ribs, barrel, milk veins and wells, flank, stifle joint, 
thigh, loin, hip or "hook" bones, rump, "pin" or thurl 
bones, tail, tail setting, fore-udder, teat, hind-udder, eschutch- 
eon. 

4. Limbs, etc. : Fore libs, forearm, knee, leg, hoof, hind limb, 
hock, shank, tail, switch. 

EXPERIMENT 85. 

Ohj. What are the external characters of a good cow? 

Reference: Judging Live Stock, Craig, p. 87. 

Oper. 

1. The class should inspect a good dairy cow and their atten- 
tions be called to the points which are shown by the score 
card in the experiment following. 

2. Each member of the class should draw a good cow or paste 
a picture of some prize cow in his book and tell why it is 
good. 

EXPERIMENT 86. 
Obj. What does this cow score? 

02)er. Ref.: Warren, p. 343 (Ele. of Ag.) Craig, p. 76. Ohio 
Circ. 135, p. 85. Read Course for Farmers, No. 25, Cornell. 
1. Score a cow by use of this score card. 

56 



Points Deficient 



Stud. 
Est. 



Est. 
Cor. 



COENELL UNIVEESITY, 

COLLEGE OF AGEICULTUEE. 

Score Card. 

DAIRY CATTLE. 

Scale of Points — Cow. 
General Appearance— p^^^^^^ 

Weight, estimated lbs. ; actual lbs. score 

Form, wedge shape as viewed from side and top 5 
Quality, hair fine, soft; skin mellow, loose, 
medium thickness; secretion yellow abundant; 
bone clean 1^ 

Constitution, vigorous, not inclined to beef- 

iness ° 

Head and Neck — 

Muzzle, clean cut; mouth large; nostrils large 

Eyes, large, bright 

Face, lean long ; quiet expression 7 

Forehead, broad, slightly dished 

Ears, medium size; yellow inside, fine texture 
Neck, fine, medium length ; throat clean ; light 

dewlap 

Fore and Hind Quarters — 

Withers lean, thin; shoulders, slightly oblique 3 

Hips, far apart ; level between hooks 

Eump, long, wide, level 5 

Pin bones or thurls, high, wide apart 

Thighs, thin, long ^ 

Legs, straight, short ; shank fine 1 

Body- 
Chest, deep, low ; with large girth and broad, 

well sprung ribs 10 

Abdomen large, well supported ; with moderately 

high flank and large umbilicus 5 

Back, lean, straight; chine open. Tail, long, 

' slim., with fine switch 4 

Loin, broad, level ^ 

Milk-secreting Organs- 
Udder, long, attached high and full behind; 
extending far in front and full; quarters even 16 
Udder, capacious, flexible; with loose, pliable 

skin covered with fine, short hair 14 

Teats large, evenly placed 4 

Milk veins, large, tortous; large milk wells; 
eschutcheon, spreading over thighs; extending 
high and wide ; large thigh ovals 4 

Total 100 

Perfect ~ Score Student's 

Points Deficient 

Animal I^ate 

Student Standing 

;^OTE.— For bulls omit points under udder, etc. Make allowance 
for masculinity head, neck withers, size, etc. 

57 



EXPERIMENT 87. 

Obj. How is the Babcock milk test performed? 

Reference : Ele. of Ag., Warren, p. 345, also foot note p. 332. Mod- 
ern Method Test Milk, an Slyke, p. 42. 

Oper. 

1. Fill out this table: 

Reading at the top of butter fat column | 

Reading at the bottom of butter fat column | 

Per cent butter fat | 

Butter fat in 50 lbs. milk j 

Butter in 50 lbs. milk | 

Value of the butter today | 

Is it lawful milk ? 1 

The specific gravity of the acid should test between 1.82 and 
1.83 at 60° F. Strong tests at 1.84. Use commercial acid. 

THE BABCOCK TEST FOR BUTTER FAT IN MILK. 

Utensils: A hand power centrifugal tester, at least two milk test 
bottles, one pipette to measure the milk, one acid measure, 
about one pint of sulphuric acid, a few ounces of milk, and 
some hot water. All the necessary apparatus and acids can 
be purchased for about five dollars from any dairy supply 
company. They can be ordered thru a hardware dealer. Sul- 
phuric acid is sold also at drug stores. 

Sampling the milk : The milk to be tested should be thoroly mixed 
just before the sample is taken to make sure that the fat or 
cream is evenly distributed. This can be done best by gently 
pouring back and forth between two vessels several times. 
The milk should be neither very hot nor cold. Place the 
small end of the pipette at the center of the milk and suck the 
milk up above the 17.6 c. c. mark. Quickly put the index 
finger over the upper end of the pipette and by releasing the 
pressure allow the milk to run out until its upper surface is 
even with 17.6 c. c. mark when the pipette is held straight up 
and down. Place the point of the pipette a short distance into 
the test-bottle neck, holding it against the glass and with both 
pipette and bottle at an angle. Remove the finger to allow 
the milk to flow into the bottle. Be sure to get every drop 
of the milk, taking care to drain the pipette and to blow the 
last drop into the bottle. A little practice should make any- 
one proficient with the pipette. It is best always to make this 
test in duplicate; hence two bottles are needed for each lot 
of milk. 

Using the acid : The acid is very strong and must be handled with 
great care. If any gets on the hands, face or clothing, it should 
be washed off quickly and water should always be ready for 

58 



this purpose. Do not leave the acid where young children 
can get it. Never use the pipette for measuring acid. Do 
not pour acid in tin and iron receptacles — use glass or earth- 
en. After all the samples of milk to be tested have been 
measured the acid should be added. Fill the acid measure to 
the 17.5 c. c. mark with acid that is neither very cold nor hot. 
Pour this into the bottle in a slanting position. The acid 
will then carry down any milk left in the neck and follow the 
glass surface to the bottom of the bottle and form a layer 
under the milk. Hold the bottle by the neck and give it a 
circular motion for a few minutes, mixing the milk and acid 
until no milk or clear acid is visible. By this time the con- 
tents will be dark colored and hot. This change is due to 
the acid dissolving all the solid constituents of the milk except 
the fat, which it does not affect. 

Whirling the bottles: The bottles are whirled to separate the fat 
so that it can be measured. They should be hot when whirled. 
If necessary, they may be heated by standing in hot water 

before being put into the machine. A steam machine is easily 
kept hot when in use. Other kinds should have boiling hot 
water placed in them. Place the bottles in the machine so 
that each one will have another directly opposite, to keep the 
, machine in balance. Whirl the bottles live minutes at the 
proper speed for the machine in use. (Generally count, "a 
thousand-one," "a thousand-two," etc., and give the crank one 
turn at each count or once a second.) Then stop it and with 
the pipette or other convenient means, add hot water to each 
bottle until the contents come up to the bottom of the neck. 
Whirl again for two minutes. Add enough hot water to bring 
the top of the fat nearly to the top of the graduations on the 
neck of the bottles. Whirl one minute. The fat should. then 
form a clear column in the neck of the bottle. 

Eeading the percentage: Keep the fat warm so that it will be in 
a fluid condition. Hold the bottle by the upper end of the 
neck, letting it hang in a perpendicular position, on the level 
with the eye. Read the mark or graduations at the extreme 
top and the bottom of the fat column. The difference between 
these is the percentage of fat in the milk. Most test-bottles 
are made to read as high as 10 per cent. Each per centage 
has its number marked on the glass and there are five small 
spaces each representing .2 per cent between these principal 
marks. Thus, if the top of the fat column is even with the 
third short mark above the 7 mark, the top reading would be 
7.6 ; and if the bottom is half way between the first and sec- 
ond short marks above the 3 mark, the bottom reading would 
be 3.3; the difference is 4.3, which is the percentage of fat 
or number of lbs. of fat in 100 lbs. of milk tested. 

Notes : 1 c. c. means 1 cubic centimeter or about 20 drops. If the 

51) 



fat column is clouded with white specks, probably the acid was 
not strong enough, or not enough was used, or the heat was 
not high enough. If with dark specks, the acid was too strong, 
too much used or the heat too great. Always keep the acid 
bottle closed when not in use. Clean the bottles while warm 
with warm water. Do not let stand until cold. Observe a 
skim-milk bottle and a cream bottle for testing. Tell just how 
each differs from the milk bottle. State standards of Iowa 
for milk: Solids, 12% ; butter fat 3% ; cream, 16 per cent. 

The student may separate skimmed milk and cream if he 
wishes. To reduce butter fat to butter, multiply by 1 and 
1-16. 

EXPEEIMENT 88. 

Ohj. Does prompt cooling of freshly drawn milk effect its sour- 
ing? If so, how? Why? 

Oper. 

' 1. Divide a sample of freshly drawn milk into two equal parts 
(1 cup). 

2. Cool one by setting it in ice-cold water. 

3. Let the other stand in the temperature of the room. 

4. After the first has cooled sufficiently, let them both stand 
under equal conditions. Taste from time to time and record 
when each sours. 

EXPERIMENT 89. 

Obj. What care should be given to milk utensils? 
Oper. 

1. Take two bottles, bake one for 1 hour. Cork while hot, cool. 

2. Insert % cupful of freshly drawn milk in each; cork and 
see which sours first, and the time required. 

3. Pour the milk from each of the above jars. Wash one in cold 
water only. Do not scald or wipe, leave exposed to open air 
to dry. 

4. Wash the other in cold water, then scald and wipe clean, 
invert to keep from open air. 

5. Place 1/2 cupful of freshly drawn milk as before. Record the 
time for souring, etc., as before. 

EXPERIMENT 90. 

Oij. Which jar contains watered milk? 
Oper. 

1. A cylinder of water; one of good, sweet milk; one of watered 
milk which the instructor has prepared. Number each. Take 
the temperature of each. 

2. Place a N. Y. Board of Health lactometer in the water, rec- 
ord the reading. x\dd .3 for every degree above 60° F.. ; sub- 
tract .3 for every degree below 60° F. 

60 



3. Place tlie lactometer in the other two jars and take the read- 
ings of each, corrected. 

4. Detect the watered milk. Could milk when slightly watered, 
be detected? 

EXPERIMENT 91. 
Ohj. What per cent of this milk is solids? Per cent solids not 

fats? Per cent fat? 
Pteference : Mod. Meth. Milk Test, Van Slyke, p. 133. A Dairy Lab. 

Guide — Ross, p. 30, Orange Judd Co. 
Oper. 

1. Make a Babcock test. 

2. Use a Quevenne lactometer which gives the Sp. Ur. Each di- 
vision is 1°; every fifth degree is numbered. 

3. Fifteen degrees of reading equals 1.015 Sp. Gr. 

4. To correct for temperature: Eor every degree above 60° F. 
add .1° to the reading at 60 which the instrument records; 
below 60° F., vice versa. Do not test milk until two hours 
after it has been drawn. 

5. Place the milk to be tested in a cylinder, lower lactometer 
therein, read, adjust for temperature. The lowest limit for 
the Sp. Gr. of milk is 1.029; normal milk is 1.030 to 1.034. 

6. L=reading of lactometer. F— Per cent of fat. 

7. Formula to determine per cent of solids in milk. S. N". F. 

T —L 7 T^ 

(Solids not Fats)= 3 g 

8. Estimate the per cent. Subtract the results of your two form- 
ulae. 

9. Estimate the total solids. 

EXPERIMENT 92. 
Ohj. How may I test milk for foreign substances, preservatives, 

etc. ? Annatto, Coal-tar dves. Sodium Carbonate, Formalin. 
Ref.: IT. S. Dept. Ag. Bu. Chem. Bui. 100, p. 52. Formalin, 

borax, p. 44. 
Oper. The instructor prepares specimens numbered, etc. 

1. Test for annatto: 10 c. c. of milk in a t. t. add 10 c. c. aether; 
shake well, let stand until aether rises to top A yellow color 
in the aether shows annatto — the deeper, the more coloring. 

2. Coal tar dyes (Azo colors) : 10 c. c. milk added to 10 c. c. 
strong H CI ; mix, a pink color shows azo colors. 

3. Formalin: "Freezine," "Iceline," 2-6% formalin. 10 c. <■. 
milk in a test bottle or test tube; add 5 c. c. sulphuric acid, 
very slowly, so the acid tends to stay on top. Do this by let- 
ting it run down the side. Formalin shows as a marked vio- 
let ray between acid and milk when a few drops of iron sul- 
phate is added. 

4. Sodium Carbonate: 10 c. c. milk added 10 c. c. alcohol and a 
few drops 1% sol. of resolic acid. Pure milk shows a brownish 
yellow: carbonates rose-red color. 

61 



EXPERIMENT 93. 

Obj. How may I separate "oleo" from pure butter? 
Oper. 

1. Heat some skimmed milk^ add one-half taespoonful of the 
sample to be tested. Stir with a wooden splint until all the 
fat is melted. Cool by allowing faucet water to run against 
the side of the jar. Stir until the fat hardens. Butter, fresh 
or renovated, solidifies in small particles, scattered thruout the 
milk and cannot be collected in one mass and lifted out like 
the oleo. Note. — It is best for the instructor to have two 
samples, one pure and one mixed to see if the student can 
detect each. 

2. You may weigh each and estimate the per cent. 

EXPERIMENT 94. 
Ohj. What is the appearance of milk under the microscope ? What 

parts can you distinguish ? 
Ref.: F. B. 29, p. 5. F. B. 348, p. 14. F. B. 42. Yr. Bk. 190, 

p. 180. 
OpevL Place a small drop of milk on a slide, cover with a cover 

glass, place under the microscope, find the fat globules with 

the low power. Examine with the high power. 

1. Note the fat globules, size, shape, number, some gathering 
and forming cream. Measure with the micrometer scale, eye- 
piece 10, divide by 25 for the real size. Estimate the number 
in a sq. m. m. Draw to show several sizes; they are. not hol- 
low like bubbles. They are globules of fat. Can you see the 
water ? Bacteria ? 

2. The fluid part called serum consists of milk except fat. The 
other constituents are dissolved in the water and are princi- 
pally sugar, casine, (albumin) and mineral matter in small 
quantities. Sugar is the chief compound but not very sweet. 
After burning, phosphates, chlorides or soda, potash and lime. 
It is said that a single drop of milk contains millions of glob- 
ules and if a person should count 100 per minute, 10 hours per 
day, 6 days in a week, it would take ten years to count all in 
one drop. Different breeds have different size globules. Jer- 
sey probably has the largest and for this reason the cream 
rises quickest. 

Held in Solution 
Water. Fat. Casine. Albumin. Sugai Ash. 

Milk... 87% 3.6% 3.3%' 0.7% 0.7% 

Nitrogenous 

3. Draw under the microscope : 

(a) Cream. 

(b) Good milk. 

(c) Skimmed milk. 

62 



EXPEEIMENT 95. 

Ohj. Does this cow pay for her keeping ? 

Oper. Copy the following table, weigh the milk that some cow 
gives, test it, weigh her feed for one meal, figure the cost, etc., 
per month. If yon cannot do this, estimate and use this ra- 
tion per day. F, B. 222, p. 13. Prices will vary as rations 
will vary. 

Ration. Lbs. Cost per T. 

Timothy 10 $10.00 

Dry fodder 10 3.00-5.00 

Corn cob meal 3 20.00 

Wheat bran 4 22.00 

Gluten meal 4 20.00 

Linseed meal 1 30.00 



(;;; 



A FARM MILK RECORD. 

Month Year Owner's Name 

Cow's Name, Bess. Weight 



DATE 


A. M. P. M. 


June 1 


1 


2 


1 


3 


1 

1 


4 




5 


1 


6 


1 


7 






8 






9 






10 






11 






12 ... 






11 


1 


15 




IG 


i 



17. 
18 
19 
20, 
21 



23 
24, 
25. 
26, 

27 
28, 
29 
30 



Total A. M. and P. M..... , 

Total milk • 

Test 

Lbs. fat 

Lbs. butter fat times 1 1-6 

Value 

Interest on investment .... 

Value of feed 

Total 

Gain or loss 



Figure all the cow gives you in fertilizer, skimmed milk and 
calf to pay you for your services, but charge her for her feed and in- 
terest on her value, as $100 for 30 days at 6%. 

64 



EXPERIMENT 96. 

Obj. What does this butter score? 
Eef. : Short Course Class Notes, No. 15, p. 7, Ames. 
Oper. 

. 1. Have several packages of different butter : 
2. Score according to this score card: 

Perfect score. 

Flavor 45 

Color (should be uniform thruout) 25 

Body (meaning texture) . . . ". 15 

Salt (including quantity and evenness of mixture . . 10 

Style (reference to the package) 5 

Good butter should liave a nutty flavor and leave a creamy, 

clean flavor in the mouth. 

Flavors : 

Flat — Unripened cream or lack of salt. 

Rancid — Overripening of cream or ripening at an improper 

temperature. 

Cheesy — Improper washing; a failure to remove casine. 

Weedy Bacterial development improper feeding. 

Acid — Incomplete washing. 

Stable — Unclean surroundings. 

Metallic — Rusty cans? (Bacteria). 

EXPERIMENT 97. 
Obj. How may I distinguish the different feeds for dairy cattle? 
Oper. 

1. Collect specimens: Linseed meal, cotton seed meal, oil cake, 
gluten meal, corn meal, ground oats, wheat, bran, oat bran, 
silage, etc., or whatever farmers are feeding in the vicinity. 

2. Read the process of milling in bulletins, books, etc., or visit a 
mill. 

3. Analyze the feed and fill the following table. Wt. per quart, 
color, texture, taste, protein, carbohydrates, crude material, 

• nutritive ratio, digestibility, mastication, etc. 

4. Under protein, etc., look in the tables at the back of the text. 
(Warren, Ele. of Ag.) 

EXPERIMENT 98. 
Obj. How may I distinguisli oleomargarine and renovated l)utier 

from genuine? 
Reference: F. B. 131, p. 7. 
Oper. 

1. A kerosene lamp and a tablespoon. 

2. The instructor should place colored "oleo,^^ renovated butter 
and fresh butter in three numbered jars before the students. 

3. "Oleo"' and renovated butter boil noisily, sputtering like a 
mixture of grease and water when boiled, produce no foau', 

65 



or but very little. Eenovated butters produces usually a very 
small amount. 

4. Genuine butter boils usually with less noise (but sputters if 
heated too fast), and produces an abundance of foam. When 
uncertain, give the butter the benefit of the doubt. 

5. Test each and record'. 

EXPEEIMENT 99. 
TOPICS TO assig:n' foe reports. 

1. Dehorning calves and cows. 

2. Different breeds of milch and beef cattle. Name the dis- 
tinguishing characteristics, size, colors, etc. 

3. Best breed or breeds for dairy; dual type, comparisons of rec- 
ords from farmers' cows of each type. 

4. Best breeds for beef, records, cost, profit, etc. 

5. Stanchions, stables, drops and platforms. 

6. Feeding troughs, racks, calf pens, yards, sheds, granary farm- 
gate. 

7. Two i^lans for a dairy barn, ground and elevation. 

8. How to construct three kinds of silos; precautions, the best. 

9. Silage preparation, feeding qualities, compared with other 
feeds, amount to feed a cow per year. How to figure the con- 
tents of a silo. 

10. The milk house, milking utensils (structure, care and use), 
cream, churn, milk testers, scales. 

11. Operation of a separator and milking machine. 

12. How, what and when to feed: (a) milch cow; (b) steers. 
Give a balance ration during two periods for each. 

13. Does a cow pay? Table showing the milk she gives each 
milking for a month, etc., as shown in a previous experi- 
ment which see. 

14. Milk, use of testing, testing associations, method of, lacto- 
meter. 

15. Milk, cause of souring, cautions, composition, value as a 
food, care of delivery, bottle and pail, pasteurizing, etc. 

16. Kinds of bacteria, Coci, Bacilli, Spiryllum, Butryic acid: 
alkaline, stringy, soapy, blue and bitter milk. 

17. Contagious diseases scattered by milk. How spread, preven- 
tions, poisonous preservatives, butter coloring. 

18. Butter as a food compared with "oleo." Oleo, how made, use, 
kinds, value? 

19. Cuts of beef, relative price and food values. 

20. Elementary principles of cooking each; stakes and stews. 

21. Yeal as food, "Bob" veal. Compare with beef and mutton. 

22. Bv-products from a slaughterins^ house. Name and uses of 
each. See Am. Cy. Brit., Vol. 106. 

23. Cheese making at home. Method. 

24. Butter making complete, ripening the cream, etc. How to 
renovate butter and tell the same. 

66 



POULTRY 

EXPERIMENT 100. 

Ohj. What are the parts of an egg and the use of each? 

Oper. 

1. Bring a pot of water, enough to cover the eggs, to a boil; re- 
move from the fire, insert the eggs, let remain for 45 to 50 
minutes for hard boiled. If you wish, you may boil for 3 or 4 
minutes if in a hurry. Drop in cold water after boiling to 
prevent turning black. 

Reference: Warren, p. 368. 
Unboiled : 

1. Place each end of an egg in the hollow of your hands, try to 
break. The particles of the egg are arched so as to give them 
strength. 

2. Place a magnifier on and draw a small portion of the sur- 
face. Label, pores, particles of the shell, pigment or color. 

3. Place in a little nitric acid; account for the result. Mix some 
limestone and nitric acid. 

4. Break an egg in a saucer but do not l)reak the 3'olk; crack 
. in the center, then open. 

(a) Note, germinal disc, an oblong mass of white ma- 
terial which develops into a chick — near the yolk. 

(b) Chalaza — whitish cords holding the yolk in albu- 
min. 

(c) Albumin. 

(d) Air space. In which end of the shell? 

(e) Two membrances around the air space. Do they 
cover the whole contents? 

5. The vitellene membrane surrounding the yolk. 

6. Draw, showing these parts, then puncture the vitellene mem- 
brane; describe. 

7. Hold a fresh egg l)efore an egg tester and see what parts you 
can make out. Use a boiled egg. 

8. Peel the shell from the large end so as to preserve part of the 
outer membrane, air chamber, shell, etc. 

0. Cut the hard l)oiled egg lengthwise thru the center. 

10. Note the fatty yolk floated on the albumin and the germ lies 
on the yolk. 

11. Note two colors of yolk, lighter next to the germ. 

12. Xote the chalaza ("hammock") holding the yolk in place; 
Vitellene membrane. 

13. Perhaps you may note the two layers of albumin. Draw to 
shoAv these facts. 

14. Xote the little pores in tlie shell. Some will show pigment 
or coloring particles. 

15. Try to break an egs" by grasping the ends in tlie palms of 

67 



your hands and squeezing. If you have a thin, acid-eaten 
portion of the shell or filed portion, you can see by aid of a 
magnifier the small lime particles put together like the arch 
in a bridge. This gives the shell its strength. 

EXPEEIMENT 101. 
Ohj. What part of an Qgg is shell? Albumin? Yolk? 
Oper. 

1. Weigh an egg,. 

2. Boil it hard; dash in cold water. 

3. Remove the shell, weigh; also the yolk and white. 

4. Record all by this table. Your result is approximate. Why ? 



Weight 



Fraction 
Part 



Per Ct. 



Shell 

White 

Yolk 



EXPERIMENT 102. 
Ohj. What precautions should a person take in sorting eggs for 



marketing? For hatching r 



U. S. Yr. Bk. A^. 



Ref.: Cornell Rural Sch. Leaf. 11>1:3, p. 

1912. 
To prepare museum specimens : 

1. File the ends of an Qgg until each shows grey; puncture, 
blow thru a tube inserted in the opening of the large end, un- 
til the contents are blown out. Mount the eggs on a cardboard, 
with glue, for further use. Give data : breed, date, fowl, 
weight, etc. Instruments for this work can be obtained from 
Ward's Nat. Museum, Rochester, N. Y., 25c. 

Oper. Size, weight and form : 

2. Select six large, fresh eggs, six medium and six small ones. 

3. If one small Qgg weighs ( , student weighs one), how 

much will a dozen weigh? 

4. If eight eggs should weigh a pound, what should one Qgg 
weigh? A dozen? 

5. Weigh a dozen assorted eggs. How much does one weigh? 
Weigh one and see if you are correct. Why vary? 

(). Weigh one dozen small eggs or figure weight of one dozen 
from one Qgg. What part are you losing when you buy small 
eggs? If correct size eggs sell for 30 cents, and you buy the 
small ones for 30 cents, do you gain or lose and how much? 
What per cent ? AYhat should be a correct price to ask for 
that dozen of small eggs when proper sized ones sell at 30 
cents? Eight eggs should weigh a pound. Note. — The 
teacher may present many otlier problems here. 



68 



7. Xote the difference in form ; sort so as to present the best ap- 
pearance. Show the different shapes as elliptical, round, 
elongated, etc., by drawing one of each. 

8. Among six small eggs, place several big ones. What precau- 
tions should be taken in marketing? Describe the appearance. 

9. Colors : Compare the colors of dif fierent eggs. Arrange the 
eggs so they grade from a white to a dark brown. Place 
brownest and whitest side by side. Note the contrast. Group 
the eggs of the same tint or shade; also size. Note how much 
darker a tinted egg looks by a pure white than by a brown. 
Sort out six of each, keeping the sizes, colors, etc., the same 
as near as possible. New York demands white eggs; Boson, 
brown. 

Shell texture : 

10. Note that some of the eggs are glossy, some smooth, some 
rough, thick and thin shelled. These differences are due to 
breed characteristics and may be determined to tell the fowl 
that laid the egg. If the shells are thin, it shows a lack of 
lime in the food and improper feeding. Do not use such for 
hatching as they will not produce strong chicks. Use only 
eggs per,fect in size, shape, color and texture which .are 
characteristics of the breed. A pure-bred is more liable to 
lay such an egg and they sell for a higher price. A hen is 
liable to lay an egg like the one from which she was hatched. 

11. Name the precautions in sorting for hatching. 

12. Cleaning and packing: Clean by washing with a damp cloth. 
Washed eggs do not keep so well but lay them aside for fami- 
ly use. Cartons for packing can be purchased from companies 
or made as handiwork. Place so the small end is down. Saw- 
dust, bran, oats, etc., may be used or a mixture of bran and 
powdered charcoal is excellent. Keep clean and cool. Never 
put eggs in water. Infertile eggs keep best; therefore, "swat 
the rooster" after you have finished saving eggs for incuba- 
tion. Pack infertile eggs if possible. 

EXPEEIMENT 103. 
Obj. What is a good method for preserving cheap egg^ for later 

use? 
Water glass. Silicate of Soda Method. 
Oper. 

1. Preserving months: April, May and June. 

2. A clean jar, 15 dozen of infertile, good sized, clean, fresh 
eggs from clean surroundings. 

3. Ten quarts of clean boiled water, cooled ; one quart of water 
glass, mix; stir until thoroly mixed. Keep clean. It may 
be mixed 1 :15. 

4. Pack clean, fresh, uncracked eg'gs in the stone jar, large ends 
up; pour water-glass solution over until completely covered 
about 2 in. above the eggs. 

69 



5. Cover tightly to prevent evaporation and keep in a temper- 
ature less than 60° F. (In a cool, dry, clean cellar.) 

6. Xever use the liquid the second time. 

Note. — A few eggs may be preserved in a quart fruit jar, mixing 
the water glass one part to ten of water. 

Second method : Dip eggs in a solution made by dissolving 2 oz. 
gum arable in one pint of cold water. Let them stand to dry, 
then pack in powdered charcoal. 

Third method: ("Lime pickle.'^) For large quantities. Lime 1 bu , 
slack in water; table salt, 3 lbs., cream of tartar, II/2 lb., wa- 
ter to form a mixture so an egg will float thereon. (About 
half barrel.) Keep eggs in this liquid. It is said that they 
will keep two years; or, to every pail of water, 14 lb. salt and 
1/2 lb. slacked lime, 1 oz. niter or of salt ; insert eggs therein 
small end down. Better anoint with lard to prevent brittle 
shells, etc. 

Fourth: (Coating.) Coat the eggs over either with 8 oz. beeswax 
melted with 1 lb. of olive oil or w4th melted paraffine; then 
put them in lime pickle or charcoal. 

Fifth: (Bran.) Mix 8 measures of bran Avith 1 of powdered quick- 
lime which is very good for preserving while transporting. 

Pules: 1. Do not store fertile eggs. 

2. Poor eggs will not keep even if packed. 

3. A broken egg stored with good ones endangers the whole 
packing. 

4. Keep the large end up. 

5. Observe cleanliness. 

EXPERIMENT KU. 

Obj. What is a good method for testing eggs? 

P'eference: Am. Cycl., Vol. 6, p. 523, and F. B. 585, p. 14. 

0/>e/'. Number some good eggs and some bad ego;s by h^beling on 
the shell. Record. Give these to the pupils mixed and let 
them decide. Also have at hand eggs of different ages. 

1. Mix 1 lb. (pint) water witli 2 oz. salt. Test by inserting 
the egg. It is said that this li(|ui(l does not liarm eggs. 

2. Fresh — 1 day old — stay below the surface: 3 days old — just 
immersed, but older ones float. Two weeks ( r iiu)ie, float 
with just a little of the shell in the water. 

3. Candle a poor egg and a good one to see if you ar? correct. 

EXPERIMENT 105. 
Ohj. What is a good method for candling e^''^s? How may I tell 

the following kinds of eggs: Fresh? Stale? Fertile? Infertile':^' 

Partly incubated? Heated? Blood linGred? Mixed rots? 

Black rots Mold spots? 
Reference: F. B. 594, p. 3, also F. B. 585, p. 14 (Home Made 

Tester.) Yr. Bk. Ag. 1912, p. 345. Yr. I^k. Se]). 596, p. 

70 



347. Int. CycL, Vol. 6, p. 523. Prod. Polt. Hugb., Lewis, 
Tester on p. 343, 439. TJ. S. Dept. Ag., Bur. Cheni. 51. 
How to make an egg container, F. B., p. 6-7. Ladies Home 
Journal Jan. 1915. 
Oper. Choose one of these forms of testers : One that comes with- 
an incubator : purchase one of a company selling incubators. 
You may take a round piece of cardboard, paint it black 
inside and out or put black paper over a lamp chimney. Make 
a box with a base 8x12 or more inches, ventilate, if a lamp 
is used; use an electric light if possible. Cut holes thru trap 
doors slanting along the sides, a little smaller than an egg 
and on a level with one's eye. Arrange so the flame is just 
back of the hole over which the egg may be hehl with the large 
end up. Have a good, strong light. 

1. Fresh eggs are clear and have the air space nearly filled. Hold 
a fresh egg in front of the flame. 

2. Stale eggs have more air space in the larger end; very stale 
eggs have about one-half air space. Some say that the air 
space grows i/s inch for every day. 

3. Fertile eggs have a dark germ spot; infertile, none. Break 
an egg and note a germ spot, if present. Decide first by 
candling. 

4. Partly incubated eggs show after three or four days. Use some 
eggs w^hich have been incubating three or four days. Note 
the blood rings. Large black eyes of the chick, etc. 

5. The shell is very porous and sometimes spores of moulds are- 
forced thru and there grow, forming a "kind of bread mold" 
which looks like black spots in eggs. Bacteria may do the 
same, causing rots, etc. 

6. When first set, good eggs look clear with tlie germ and yolkj, 
After three days the allantois membrane or breatliing ap- 
paratus is formed. After seven days, the stomach, brain and 
limbs can be seen. After eleven days, the feathers and large 
eyes can be seen. After fifteen days, the bill opens and 
shuts; handle sparingly. 

7. Make drawings of eggs to show as many of the above facts as 
possible. Label fully. 

EXPEEIMENT 106. 

Ohj. What precautions should be taken in sorting and caring 
for eggs during incubation ? 

Oper. Cornell Bui. 282, p. 417. F. B. 236, 585, 128. F. S. 
Yr. Bk. Ag. 1912, p. 347. Rural Sch. Leaf. Cornell 1913. 
Prod. Pol. Husb., Lewis. Lippincott, Phila. 
Nat. & Art. Brooding, F.B. 624; Nat. & Art. Incub., F. B. 
585. Stand. Var. of Chicks, F. B. 51. 
1. Sort and prepare eggs as instructed in a previous experi- 
ment. 

71 



2. Write out the following outline. Do not copy Bulletins but 
write from memory. 

A. Intro. : 

1. Reasons for sorting, etc. 

B. Dis. : 

2. Parts of an egg and location of each. 

3. Fertility and upon what it depends. 

4. Vermin, mice, lice, etc. 

5. Health and exercise of parents. 

6. Feed and care of parents. 

7. Mating numbers. 

8. Care of cock. 

9. The eggs^size, shape, color, thickness, weight, freshness, 
storage, care. 

10. Position in incubator, number, temperature, cooling, dry- 
ness, air currents, why turn, etc. 

11. Setting different breeds together. 

12. Periods of incubation with factors governing. 

13. Delayed hatching, cooling and re-incubation. 

14. Why combine hen and incubator? Value of each? 

15. What per cent is a good hatch? 

C. Con. : 

EXPEEIMEXT 107. 

Obj. What is a good method for boiling eggs? 

Eeference: The Boston Cook Bk., p. 199, Little Brown & Co., 

Boston. 
Oper. * 

1. Use six fresh eggs. 

2. Slightly crack one; pierce the larger end with two or three 
small holes to keep the interior intact. Number the eggs 
from one to six. 

3. Bring to boil enough water to cover these eggs, remove from 
the blaze, insert the egg, let stand 5 minutes. Remove Xo. 1 
after 5 minutes standing; Xo. 2 after 10 minutes; Xo. 3 after 
15 minutes; Xo. 4 after 20 minutes; Xo. 5 after 25 minutes. 
Remove the cracked one after 20 minutes standing. 

4. Dash each of 1, 2, 3 and 4 in cold water as soon as removed, 
remove all the shell, cut thru the center for inspection. Let 
Xo. 5 cool in the shell. Inspect as the others. Why dash in 
cold water? 

5. Which one is soft boiled? Hard boiled? Which has a ^'mealy" 
yolk? 

6. Did the interior come thru the cracked egg? Why? 

72 



EXPEEIMENT 108. 
Ohj. What will this dozen of eggs score? 

MARKETED EGGS. 

Name of student Breed of fowl 

doz 



Weight of 



Freshness (30) 

Size of air cell, perfect, is % of an inch or less in 
depth. Take off five points for each eighth inch 

more in depth. Use the tester 

Xatural shell, lustre; lack of same due to washing 

or age is a serious defect 

Weight (20) 

Weight of perfect sample, 24 oz. or more, per 
dozen. Cut one point per dozen for each ounce 

under weight. Overweight is no defect 

Uniformity of sample. All eggs should weigh the 

same 

Color (20) 

Color of whole sample should be either pure white 
or pure brown. If creamy or tinted with color 
they are counted defective. Dark brown being 

better than light brown 

Uniformity — All the eggs should be of the same 
tint. Note the average color and cut one point 

for every egg that is off color 

Shape (10) 

Egg shape. The large diameter should be almost 

1 1-5 times the smaller 

Uniformity. Cut a point for every egg that varies 

from the average shape which measure 

Appearance (10) 

Clean, should not show dirt or blood stains. Take 

off 14 point for every unclean egg 

Uncracked and unbroken. Cut a point for each 
cracked or broken egg; but if the contents leak 
out, do not score further as they are disquali- 
fied ; the same if more than five are cracked . . . 
Condition of Shell (5) 

Take off a point for each rough shelled egg. If 
the shells are thin, they cannot be shipped de- 
sirably and are counted defective 

Package (5) 

Should be neat and attractive. Ligbtness, dura- 
bility 

Total 

Score tbe eggs given yon. 

Student's score 



Points 



20 
10 

10 
10 

10 

10 

5 
5 



5 

Too 



Score 



73 



EXPERIMENT 109. 
Obj. How may I tell the different parts of a feather? 
Oper. 

1. Take some good quill feather from a hen or other fowl. 

2. Note the quill or central part that possesses no feathered 
portion. How was it fastened to the hen? Examine a hen 
to see. Can you see the line Avhere it was fastened? Is it 
solid or hollow? Why? Uses made of quills? 

3. Note the extension of the quill thru the feathers, the shaft, 
which bears the feathery portion. 

4. Note the feathery portion is divided into two parts, a fluffy 
part near the quill or the flujf ; and the flat part which clings 
together or the web. 

5. Examine some of the web under a magnifying glass. Pick 
it apart to see what makes the parts cling together. Now 
comb it together by running between your thumb and finger. 
Pull out one of these little feathers or barhs. Note that each 
barb has little projections on the sides or barbules, What is 
the use of each? 

6. Do the barbs on the fluff liave barbules? Are the barbules and 
barbs alike or different on different parts of a feather? On 
different feathers? Why? 

7. Draw a feather showing these facts. 

For the barring, striping, streaking, penciling, etc., of feath- 
ers, see tlie Am. Standard of Perfection. 

EXPERIMENT 110. 
Obj. Are the feathers on a fowl all alike? Describe each. 
Oper. 

1. Have a live fowl or l)etter a dead one at hand. Choose as 
good breed as possible. Obtain a feather from the neck, 
back, tail, sickle, fluff, wing bow, wing primaries and sec- 
ondaries, hackle, breast and leg. 

2. Make an outline drawing of each. Compare them as to size, 
shape, color, form, etc. 

3. You may cut a fowl out of a pasteboard, and sew these 
feathers thereon, etc. 

4. Does the breed effect the feathers? How? See Standard of 
Perfection. 

EXPERIMENT 111. 
Obj. What are the feathered parts of a fowl? The other parts? 
Ref. : Am. Stand, of Perf. or a Dictionary under "Fowl." 
Oper. 

1'. Copy the drawing and parts from the text. 

2. Observe a fowl in a pen with three glass sides, top and one 
end of muslin, bottom covered with straw, etc. 

3. Sketch a fowl at hand and learn to recognize each part. Note 
how the feathered parts of a hen and rooster differ; cape of 
a hen, etc. 

74 



4. Label each feathered part on your drawing. N'ote. — Some text 
books give these parts; also, one chart. If not found here, 
see dictionary under "fowl." 

5. Note other parts as head, comb with its blade and points, eye 
with its parts, especially the membranous lid; face, u})per 
and lower mandible or beak, nostrils, wattles, shank witli 
scales like a fish, toes, webs, nails, spur. Note that a fowl 
walks on its toes with its "foot" or sliank nearly vertical 
and covered with scales to the heel. 

6. Compare each part of our lower limbs witli a fowFs; com- 
pare the upper limbs. 

7. Arrange your limbs and body parts simihir f \i fowl. 

EXPERIMENT 112. 
Ohj. What does this fowl score? 
Kef.: Am. Standard of Perfection, Secy. Am. Poult. Asso., (Vdar 

Rapids, la. ($2.) 
Oyer. Score the fowl. The above volume is necessary to do good 

work. Score card used at Waterloo and Cedar Falls Poultry 

Asso., Dec, 1912. 

Student's Xame 

Date Variety 

Owner Sex 

Address Band No 

Entry No Weight 



Perfect Scor 



Student's Score. 





Perfect Score 


student' 


s vScore 




Shape 


Color 


Sliape Color 


Svmmetrv 






1 


Weight or size 










Condition 










Head and beak 










Eyes 










(\)unt 










AVattles or ear lobes 










Neck 










Wing^ 










Back 










Tail 










Breast ; 










Bodv and fluff 










Ee'2:? and toes 










* Hardness of feather 










=::::=( ^vu^t and beard 




















Totals 

















^Applies to game Game Bantams. 
**x4pplies to crested breeds. 
Judge 

75 



2. From the Standard of Perfection, fill in the points allowed 
for a perfect fowl of that breed; also weights, colors, etc. 

3. Note the reason and amount of cuts for inspection. 

4. Score the fowl at hand according to the breed it nearest rep- 
resents. 

5. Are there any imperfections that would bar it from entry? 
If so, name them. 

6. Compare your score with that of another student, when fin- 
ished. 

EXPERIMENT 113. 

TOPICS FOT POULTRY EESEARCH. 

1. Structure for an ideal poultry house for 20 fowls. Ground 
plan, elevation, floor space and cu. ft. per fowl. 

2. Poultry yards, pens, portable houses, fences, etc. 

3. Nests, trap nests, roosts, scratching pens, feeding troughs, 
watering troughs, etc. 

4. Feeding poultry; chicks, growing, fattening, laying, with ra- 
tions. 

5. Killing, dressing, cuts, cooking, "ripening,," etc. 

6. Incubators, brooders, how to set a hen, candle the eggs fourth, 
seventh and fourteenth day. 

7. Care of eggs, principles for breeding, storage, etc. 

8. Eggs as food, kinds, relative values of each, cooking, parts of, 
composition. 

9. Testing, sorting, grading, taste, weight, size, color, packing 
and preserving. 

10. Five breeds of hens with their characteristics and comb-ty]3es. 

11. The two best breeds: for eggs, for food, for all around pur- 
poses, with egg records ("dual purpose," ''egg purpose"). 
Explain, "Swat the rooster." 

12. Internal structure of a fowl, skeleton, systems. 

13. Diseases, ailments, cures, preventatives, sanitary precautions. 

14. Judging and scoring Reds. 

15. Judging and scoring Barred Rocks. 

The student chooses his topic, finds references in bulletins 
and books, inquires of persons of experience, writes a thesis 
and presents it to the class. 



76 



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